Evaluation
AQA A-Level Economics 7136
Economic Methodology and the Economic Problem
Individual Economic Decision Making
Price Determination in a Competitive Market
Topic overviewDemand, the demand curve, income and wealthSubstitutes, complements and consumer preferencesPrice elasticity of demand and total revenueThe determinants of price elasticity of demandIncome and cross elasticity of demandThe determinants of supplyPrice elasticity of supplyEquilibrium, disequilibrium and how a market clearsShifts in demand and supply, and the price mechanismThe interrelationship between markets
Production, Costs and Revenue
Perfect Competition, Imperfectly Competitive Markets and Monopoly
Topic overviewThe characteristics of the four market structuresPrice takers, price makers and non-price competitionCompetitive marketsThe objectives of firmsProfit maximisation and the divorce of ownership from controlProfit maximisation and the shutdown conditionPrice taking, entry and exit, and long-run equilibriumEfficiency in perfect competition and its assumptionsMonopolistic competition in the short runMonopolistic competition in the long runThe characteristics of oligopoly and barriers to entryThe kinked demand curve and price rigidityCollusion, cartels and price leadershipNon-price competition in oligopolyThe advantages and disadvantages of oligopolyMonopoly power and barriers to entryThe monopoly diagram and supernormal profitThe costs and benefits of monopolyPrice discriminationThe dynamics of competitionCreative destruction and the competitive market processContestable and non-contestable marketsStatic and dynamic efficiencyMarket structure and resource allocationConsumer and producer surplus
The Labour Market
The Distribution of Income and Wealth: Poverty and Inequality
Topic overviewIncome, wealth and the causes of their distributionEquality, equity, the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficientThe arguments about inequalityThe problem of povertyProgressive taxation and transfer paymentsMeans-tested benefits, universal benefits and the poverty trapWealth taxes and state provisionEvaluating redistribution
The Market Mechanism, Market Failure and Government Intervention
Topic overviewHow markets and prices allocate resourcesThe meaning of market failurePublic goods, private goods and quasi-public goodsPositive and negative externalitiesMerit and demerit goodsMarket imperfectionsAn inequitable distribution of income and wealthIndirect taxes and subsidiesPrice controls, state provision and regulationPollution permits and the extension of property rightsEvaluating intervention and the mixed economyGovernment failureCompetition policyPublic ownership, privatisation, regulation and deregulation
The Measurement of Macroeconomic Performance
How the Macroeconomy Works
Topic overviewThe circular flow of incomeThe aggregate demand and aggregate supply curvesWhat shifts short-run and long-run aggregate supplyMacroeconomic equilibrium and economic shocksConsumption and investmentGovernment spending and net exportsThe accelerator, saving and investmentAggregate demand and the level of economic activityThe determinants of aggregate supply
Economic Performance
Topic overviewShort-run and long-run economic growthThe economic cycle and output gapsDemand-side and supply-side shocksMeasuring unemployment and the types of unemploymentThe determinants of employment and policies to reduce unemploymentInflation and deflationThe quantity theory of moneyConsequences of inflation and deflationThe balance of payments on current accountOutput gaps and the growth-inflation conflictReconciling policy objectives in the AD/AS model
Financial Markets and Monetary Policy
Topic overviewThe characteristics and functions of moneyFinancial markets and their roleDebt, equity and bond yieldsCommercial banks, investment banks and the balance sheetLiquidity, profitability, security and credit creationThe instruments and institutions of monetary policyHow bank rate changes affect the economyWhat the MPC considers, and the exchange rate channelThe functions of a central bankThe bank rate and the MPC's decisionsExchange rate movements and the macroeconomyThe monetary policy transmission mechanismQuantitative easing and unconventional policyThe regulators and the risks banks faceLiquidity ratios, capital ratios and systemic risk
Fiscal Policy and Supply-Side Policies
Topic overviewFiscal policy and aggregate demandTypes of taxThe budget balance and the national debtThe purposes of public expenditure and taxationThe principles of taxationBudget deficits, surpluses and their effectsThe national debt and fiscal rulesSupply-side policies and how they workMarket-based and interventionist supply-side policies
The International Economy
Topic overviewThe causes and characteristics of globalisationThe impact of globalisation on developed and developing economiesMultinational corporationsComparative and absolute advantageThe effects of trade and changing trade patternsTariffs, quotas and the tariff diagramArguments for and against protectionismTrading blocs and the World Trade OrganisationThe components of the balance of paymentsCauses of current account imbalances and investment flowsCorrecting imbalances and their consequencesHow exchange rates are determined in a floating systemGovernment intervention and fixed exchange ratesFloating rates and currency unionsGrowth, development and less-developed economiesMeasuring development: the HDI and other indicatorsInvestment and education as drivers of developmentCorruption, governance and institutional barriersInfrastructure, human capital and property rightsMarket-based and interventionist development strategiesAid and trade as development strategiesGrowth, globalisation and inequality
Economic Methodology and the Economic Problem
Economics as a social science, and positive and normative statements
- 2 things to know
- Papers 1 and 3
Overview
Economics as a social science, the difference between positive and normative statements, and the role of value judgements.
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
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Numbers
What is a normative statement, and how does it differ from a positive one?
Questions from this subtopic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
How is economics classified as a discipline, and what does it study?
Model answer
Economics is classified as a social science. It studies human behaviour and society rather than natural phenomena.
- 2
What methodological features does economics share with natural sciences?
Model answer
Economics shares the use of models, hypothesis testing, and data analysis with natural sciences.
- 3
Why does economics differ from natural sciences despite sharing some methods?
Model answer
Economics differs because controlled experiments are rarely possible and human behaviour is less predictable than natural phenomena.
- 4
What is a positive statement in economics?
Model answer
A positive statement is an objective, factual claim that can be tested and verified or refuted with evidence.
- 5
Give an example of a positive economic statement.
Model answer
'The UK unemployment rate is 4%' – this is factual and can be verified with data.
- 6
What is a normative statement?
Model answer
A normative statement is a subjective claim based on value judgements about what ought to be, which cannot be tested empirically.
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