What are the shoe-leather costs of inflation?

The time and effort households and firms spend managing their money to avoid holding cash that is losing value, such as moving funds between interest-bearing accounts more often.

How does inflation affect people on fixed incomes?

Their real incomes fall because their money incomes do not rise with the price level, so they can buy fewer goods and services.

How does unanticipated inflation redistribute income between savers and borrowers?

If inflation exceeds the interest rate, the real value of savings falls while the real value of debts shrinks, so wealth moves from savers and lenders to borrowers.

How can UK inflation above that of its trading partners affect the balance of payments?

UK exports become less price competitive and imports relatively cheaper, which worsens the current account unless the exchange rate depreciates to offset it.

AQA A-Level Economics 7136

Economic Methodology and the Economic Problem

Topic overview Economics as a social science, and positive and normative statements The economic problem, factors of production and opportunity cost Production possibility diagrams

Individual Economic Decision Making

Topic overview Consumer behaviour and utility Imperfect information Aspects of behavioural economic theory Behavioural economics and economic policy

Price Determination in a Competitive Market

Topic overview Demand, the demand curve, income and wealth Substitutes, complements and consumer preferences Price elasticity of demand and total revenue The determinants of price elasticity of demand Income and cross elasticity of demand The determinants of supply Price elasticity of supply Equilibrium, disequilibrium and how a market clears Shifts in demand and supply, and the price mechanism The interrelationship between markets

Production, Costs and Revenue

Topic overview Production, productivity and specialisation Costs of production in the short and long run Economies and diseconomies of scale Revenue and profit The law of diminishing returns and returns to scale Technological change

Perfect Competition, Imperfectly Competitive Markets and Monopoly

Topic overview The characteristics of the four market structures Price takers, price makers and non-price competition Competitive markets The objectives of firms Profit maximisation and the divorce of ownership from control Profit maximisation and the shutdown condition Price taking, entry and exit, and long-run equilibrium Efficiency in perfect competition and its assumptions Monopolistic competition in the short run Monopolistic competition in the long run The characteristics of oligopoly and barriers to entry The kinked demand curve and price rigidity Collusion, cartels and price leadership Non-price competition in oligopoly The advantages and disadvantages of oligopoly Monopoly power and barriers to entry The monopoly diagram and supernormal profit The costs and benefits of monopoly Price discrimination The dynamics of competition Creative destruction and the competitive market process Contestable and non-contestable markets Static and dynamic efficiency Market structure and resource allocation Consumer and producer surplus

The Labour Market

Topic overview The demand for labour and marginal productivity theory The supply of labour Wage determination in competitive labour markets Wage determination in imperfectly competitive labour markets Trade unions and wage determination The National Minimum Wage Discrimination in the labour market

The Distribution of Income and Wealth: Poverty and Inequality

Topic overview Income, wealth and the causes of their distribution Equality, equity, the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient The arguments about inequality The problem of poverty Progressive taxation and transfer payments Means-tested benefits, universal benefits and the poverty trap Wealth taxes and state provision Evaluating redistribution

The Market Mechanism, Market Failure and Government Intervention

Topic overview How markets and prices allocate resources The meaning of market failure Public goods, private goods and quasi-public goods Positive and negative externalities Merit and demerit goods Market imperfections An inequitable distribution of income and wealth Indirect taxes and subsidies Price controls, state provision and regulation Pollution permits and the extension of property rights Evaluating intervention and the mixed economy Government failure Competition policy Public ownership, privatisation, regulation and deregulation

The Measurement of Macroeconomic Performance

Topic overview The objectives of government economic policy Macroeconomic indicators and index numbers Uses of national income data

How the Macroeconomy Works

Topic overview The circular flow of income The aggregate demand and aggregate supply curves What shifts short-run and long-run aggregate supply Macroeconomic equilibrium and economic shocks Consumption and investment Government spending and net exports The accelerator, saving and investment Aggregate demand and the level of economic activity The determinants of aggregate supply

Economic Performance

Topic overview Short-run and long-run economic growth The economic cycle and output gaps Demand-side and supply-side shocks Measuring unemployment and the types of unemployment The determinants of employment and policies to reduce unemployment Inflation and deflation The quantity theory of money Consequences of inflation and deflation The balance of payments on current account Output gaps and the growth-inflation conflict Reconciling policy objectives in the AD/AS model

Financial Markets and Monetary Policy

Topic overview The characteristics and functions of money Financial markets and their role Debt, equity and bond yields Commercial banks, investment banks and the balance sheet Liquidity, profitability, security and credit creation The instruments and institutions of monetary policy How bank rate changes affect the economy What the MPC considers, and the exchange rate channel The functions of a central bank The bank rate and the MPC's decisions Exchange rate movements and the macroeconomy The monetary policy transmission mechanism Quantitative easing and unconventional policy The regulators and the risks banks face Liquidity ratios, capital ratios and systemic risk

Fiscal Policy and Supply-Side Policies

Topic overview Fiscal policy and aggregate demand Types of tax The budget balance and the national debt The purposes of public expenditure and taxation The principles of taxation Budget deficits, surpluses and their effects The national debt and fiscal rules Supply-side policies and how they work Market-based and interventionist supply-side policies

The International Economy

Topic overview The causes and characteristics of globalisation The impact of globalisation on developed and developing economies Multinational corporations Comparative and absolute advantage The effects of trade and changing trade patterns Tariffs, quotas and the tariff diagram Arguments for and against protectionism Trading blocs and the World Trade Organisation The components of the balance of payments Causes of current account imbalances and investment flows Correcting imbalances and their consequences How exchange rates are determined in a floating system Government intervention and fixed exchange rates Floating rates and currency unions Growth, development and less-developed economies Measuring development: the HDI and other indicators Investment and education as drivers of development Corruption, governance and institutional barriers Infrastructure, human capital and property rights Market-based and interventionist development strategies Aid and trade as development strategies Growth, globalisation and inequality

Economic Performance

Consequences of inflation and deflation

3 things to know
Papers 2 and 3

Overview

The costs of inflation, from menu and shoe-leather costs to redistribution, competitiveness and fiscal drag, the difference between anticipated and unanticipated inflation, and the consequences of deflation, including deflationary spirals, debt burdens and Japan's experience.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

Your recallNot started

Process

Who may gain from deflation?

Process

Why can high and volatile inflation reduce investment and long-run growth?

Key term

What are the menu costs of inflation?

Questions from this subtopic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
What are the menu costs of inflation?
Model answer
The costs to firms of changing their prices frequently, such as reprinting price lists, updating websites and relabelling goods.
2
What are the shoe-leather costs of inflation?
Model answer
The time and effort households and firms spend managing their money to avoid holding cash that is losing value, such as moving funds between interest-bearing accounts more often.
3
How does inflation affect people on fixed incomes?
Model answer
Their real incomes fall because their money incomes do not rise with the price level, so they can buy fewer goods and services.
4
How does unanticipated inflation redistribute income between savers and borrowers?
Model answer
If inflation exceeds the interest rate, the real value of savings falls while the real value of debts shrinks, so wealth moves from savers and lenders to borrowers.
5
How can UK inflation above that of its trading partners affect the balance of payments?
Model answer
UK exports become less price competitive and imports relatively cheaper, which worsens the current account unless the exchange rate depreciates to offset it.
6
Why can high and volatile inflation reduce investment and long-run growth?
Model answer
It creates uncertainty about future costs, prices and real returns, making firms reluctant to commit to long-term investment.

See the rest and revise

Other ways to work this

The same content, four other ways.

What is inside Levo

Six ways to work the same material.

1Closed book

2Open book

3Closed book

The 3-step method, run for you

Answer cold, learn it, then prove it stuck. Levo tracks the jump between your first attempt and your last.

Economic Methodology and the Economic Problem

Individual Economic Decision Making

Price Determination in a Competitive Market

Production, Costs and Revenue

Cram a whole paper in one sitting

Sort every topic into what you know and what you do not, then drill only the weak ones.

Where MC MR.

equalsexceedsdoubles

Blank Blitz makes facts automatic

Rapid timed gap-fills on the terms and numbers you need to recall without thinking.

AA higher bank rate increases borrowing costs.

BA higher bank rate increases returns on savings.

CA lower bank rate reduces returns on savings.

Build It gets the exam shape right

Assemble a full-mark answer from its marking points, in the order an examiner wants them.

Monopsony means a market dominated by one buyer.

TrueFalse

Test It catches misconceptions

Spot the fault in a statement. The traps are the mistakes students actually make.

721941163128510

Brain Breaks between sessions

Short focus games to reset attention, so the next set lands better than the last.

Every question in Economic Performance, on a schedule.

Attempt a question from memory, write the correct version, then attempt it again. Levo records the jump between your first attempt and your last, and brings each question back on the day you are due to forget it.

Start revising, £5 a month See how the method works

Or £46 a year, about £3.83 a month. Cancel anytime.