Process
Edexcel A-Level Psychology 9PS0
Social Psychology
Topic overviewAgency theory and social impact theoryMilgram's research into obedienceFactors affecting obedience and resistanceSocial identity theory and realistic conflict theoryFactors affecting prejudice and discriminationIndividual differences in obedience and prejudiceDevelopmental psychology in obedience and prejudiceDesigning questionnaires and interviewsTypes of interview and questionAlternate and null hypothesesSampling techniquesQuantitative and qualitative dataAnalysing quantitative dataThematic analysis of qualitative dataThe BPS code of ethics and conductRisk management in psychological researchClassic study: Sherif et al. (1954) Robbers CaveContemporary study: Burger (2009)Contemporary study: Reicher and Haslam (2006)Contemporary study: Cohrs et al. (2012)Key question in social psychologyDesigning the practical investigationAnalysing and reporting the practical investigationEthics and practical issues in social psychologyNature-nurture, social control and reducing prejudiceReductionism and comparing explanationsCulture, gender and social sensitivity
Cognitive Psychology
Topic overviewThe working memory modelThe multi-store model of memoryEpisodic and semantic long-term memoryReconstructive memory and schema theoryIndividual differences in memoryDevelopmental psychology in memoryLaboratory and field experimentsIndependent and dependent variablesExperimental and null hypothesesOne-tailed and two-tailed testsExperimental designsOperationalisation, extraneous and confounding variablesOrder effects and counterbalancingSituational and participant variablesObjectivity, reliability and validityDemand characteristics and experimenter effectsMeasures of central tendency and dispersionGraphical presentation of dataMann-Whitney U and WilcoxonSignificance, critical values and errorsCase studies of brain-damaged patientsClassic study: Baddeley (1966)Contemporary study: Schmolck et al. (2002)Contemporary study: Steyvers and Hemmer (2012)Contemporary study: Sebastián and Hernández-Gil (2012)Key question in cognitive psychologyPractical investigation in cognitive psychologyIssues and debates in cognitive psychology
Biological Psychology
Topic overviewThe central nervous system and neurotransmittersHow recreational drugs affect synaptic transmissionBrain structure and aggressionEvolution and natural selectionFreud's psychodynamic explanation of aggressionHormones and aggressionIndividual differences in biological psychologyDevelopmental psychology in biological psychologyCorrelational researchSpearman's rho, chi-squared and significanceHypotheses, variables and levels of measurementBrain-scanning techniquesTwin and adoption studiesClassic study: Raine et al. (1997)Contemporary study: Li et al. (2013) heroin usersContemporary study: Brendgen et al. (2005)Contemporary study: Van den Oever et al. (2008)Key question in biological psychologyPractical investigation in biological psychologyIssues and debates in biological psychology
Learning Theories
Topic overviewThe main features of classical conditioningPavlov's experiment with salivation in dogsThe main features of operant conditioningProperties and schedules of reinforcementBehaviour modification and shapingThe main features of social learning theoryThe four stages of social learningBandura's original Bobo doll experimentsBandura (1965) and vicarious reinforcementHow learning theories explain phobiasSystematic desensitisation and floodingIndividual differences in learning theoriesDevelopmental psychology in learning theoriesObservational research with humansAnimal research and its ethicsChi-squared and levels of measurementThematic analysis in learning researchThe scientific status of psychologyClassic study: Watson and Rayner (1920) Little AlbertContemporary study: Becker et al. (2002)Contemporary study: Bastian et al. (2011)Contemporary study: Capafons et al. (1998)Key question in learning theoriesPractical investigation in learning theoriesIssues and debates in learning theories
Clinical Psychology
Topic overviewDiagnosing mental disorders and the four DsThe DSM and ICD classification systemsSymptoms and features of schizophreniaExplanations of schizophreniaAnorexia nervosa: symptoms and explanationsObsessive-compulsive disorder: symptoms and explanationsUnipolar depression: symptoms and explanationsTreatments for schizophrenia and the second disorderIndividual differences in clinical psychologyDevelopmental psychology in clinical psychologyHCPC guidelines for clinical practitionersResearching mental healthCase studies in clinical psychologyInterviews in clinical psychologyChoosing an inferential testDescriptive statistics, levels of measurement and significanceThematic analysis and grounded theoryClassic study: Rosenhan (1973)Contemporary study: Carlsson et al. (2000)Contemporary study: Kroenke et al. (2008)Contemporary study: Williams et al. (2013)Contemporary study: Scott-Van Zeeland et al. (2013)Contemporary study: Guardia et al. (2012)Contemporary study: Masellis et al. (2003)Contemporary study: March et al. (2004) POTSKey question in clinical psychologyPractical investigation in clinical psychologyIssues and debates in clinical psychologyComparing the classic studies
Criminological PsychologyApplication
Topic overviewBiological explanations of crimeSocial explanations of crimeThe cognitive interview and ethical interviewingPsychological formulation and offence analysisCognitive-behavioural treatments for offendersBiological treatments for offendersFactors influencing eye-witness testimonyFactors influencing jury decision-makingIndividual differences in criminological psychologyDevelopmental psychology in criminological psychologyResearch methods in criminological psychologySample selection and techniquesReliability and validity in criminological researchObjectivity, credibility and ethics in criminological researchAnalysing data and evaluating practical researchEthical guidelines in criminological researchClassic study: Loftus and Palmer (1974)Contemporary study: Bradbury and Williams (2013)Contemporary study: Valentine and Mesout (2009)Contemporary study: Howells et al. (2005)Key question in criminological psychologyPractical investigation in criminological psychologyIssues and debates in criminological psychology
Child PsychologyApplication
Topic overviewBowlby's theory of attachmentAinsworth and the Strange SituationResearch into deprivationResearch into privationResearch into day careCross-cultural research into attachmentAutism: features, explanations and therapiesIndividual differences in child psychologyDevelopmental psychology in child psychologyObservation in child psychologyQuestionnaires and interviews in child psychologyIssues with self-report in child researchCross-cultural research methodsThe ethics of researching with childrenAnalysing data in child psychologyClassic study: van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)Contemporary study: Cassibba et al. (2013)Contemporary study: Gagnon-Oosterwaal et al. (2012)Contemporary study: Li et al. (2013) child care timingKey question in child psychologyPractical investigation in child psychologyIssues and debates in child psychology
Health PsychologyApplication
Topic overviewAddiction, tolerance and dependencyWithdrawal and the effects of drug takingBiological explanations of drug addictionLearning explanations of drug addictionTreatments for alcohol addictionTreatments for heroin and nicotine addictionAnti-drug campaignsIndividual differences in health psychologyDevelopmental psychology in health psychologyUsing animals to study drugsResearch methods using humans to study drugsEthics of using human participants to study drugsCross-cultural research into drug misuseAnalysing data in health psychologyClassic study: Olds and Milner (1954)Contemporary study: Mundt et al. (2012)Contemporary study: Dixit et al. (2012)Contemporary study: Pengpid et al. (2012)Key question in health psychologyPractical investigation in health psychologyIssues and debates in health psychology
Learning Theories
The main features of operant conditioning
- 3 things to know
- Papers 1 and 3
Overview
Recall questions on positive and negative reinforcement, positive and negative punishment, and the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment.
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
Your recallNot started
Process
In operant conditioning terminology, what does the distinction between 'positive' and 'negative' actually refer to?
Key term
Define reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning.
Questions from this subtopic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
What is operant conditioning?
Model answer
A form of learning where behaviour is shaped by its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).
- 2
Define reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning.
Model answer
Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
- 3
What is punishment in operant conditioning?
Model answer
Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
- 4
What is positive reinforcement?
Model answer
Adding a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour to increase its frequency.
- 5
How does negative reinforcement work?
Model answer
It involves removing an aversive stimulus after a behaviour to increase its frequency.
- 6
Define positive punishment.
Model answer
Adding an aversive stimulus after a behaviour to decrease its frequency.
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