Define individualism as liberals understand it.

Individualism is the belief that each person is unique and morally sovereign, so society should be judged by how well it allows individuals to pursue their own ends.

Why do liberals regard human beings as rational?

Liberals hold that people can reason about their own interests and settle disputes by discussion and evidence, which is why they can be trusted with liberty.

Is the liberal view of human nature optimistic or pessimistic?

It is broadly optimistic: people are self-seeking but rational, educable and capable of cooperating peacefully for mutual benefit.

What does 'freedom under the law' mean?

It means liberty is only secure when law restrains everyone equally, so that one person's freedom is not used to destroy another's.

AQA A-Level Politics 7152

The Nature and Sources of the British Constitution

Topic overview Codified and Uncodified Constitutions The Rule of Law and Parliamentary Sovereignty Magna Carta and the Early Constitution The Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949 Individual and Collective Rights Constitutional Change since 1997 and Codification

The Structure and Role of Parliament

Topic overview The Two Chambers and Parliamentary Privilege The Passage of a Public Bill Burke and the Models of Representation The Roles of MPs and Peers Scrutiny of the Executive and PMQs Select Committees, the Opposition and Parliament's Influence

The Prime Minister and Cabinet

Topic overview The Core Executive and the Prime Minister's Powers Policy Making and the Limits of Prime Ministerial Power Ministerial Responsibility Accountability in Practice and Crichel Down

The UK Judiciary

Topic overview Judicial Independence and Impartiality The Constitutional Reform Act, Separation of Powers and Appointments The UK Supreme Court and the Grounds of Judicial Review Judicial Review and the Miller Cases

Devolution

Topic overview Devolution, Federalism and the Scottish Parliament Scotland and Wales since Devolution Northern Ireland and Power-Sharing The West Lothian Question and English Devolution The Barnett Formula, Sewel and the Impact of Devolution

Democracy and Participation

Topic overview Democracy, Legitimacy and Direct Democracy Direct and Representative Democracy Compared The Reform Acts of 1832 to 1884 and the Chartists Suffragists and Suffragettes Who Can Vote Today, and Votes at 16 Forms of Political Participation Turnout, Apathy and Proposals for Reform Partisan and Class Dealignment

Elections and Referendums

Topic overview Majoritarian and Proportional Systems The Additional Member System, STV and Other Systems The 1945 and 1979 General Elections The 1997 and 2010 General Elections Models of Voting Behaviour Leadership, Manifestos, Campaigns and the Media The Nature and Use of Referendums Regulating Referendums, and the Case For and Against

Political Parties in the UK

Topic overview Party Functions and the Conservative Party Labour: Origins, Clause IV and Structure The Liberal Democrats Party Funding and Short Money Funding Controversies, the Media and Electoral Outcomes Two-Party, Multi-Party and Dominant-Party Systems Minor Parties in UK Politics

Pressure Groups in the UK

Topic overview What Pressure Groups Are Outsider Groups, Methods and Influence Pluralism and the Democratic Balance Sheet Think Tanks, Lobbying and the Media

The UK and the European Union

Topic overview The Institutions of the European Union EU Aims and the Four Freedoms The Impact of the EU on the UK

The Constitutional Framework of US Government

Topic overview The Nature of the US Constitution Checks and Balances and Constitutional Principles Federalism and the Division of Powers Coercive Federalism and Federal-State Disputes Amending the Constitution Informal Constitutional Change and the Rights Amendments

Congress

Topic overview The Composition of Congress The Powers of Each Chamber, Leadership and Elections How a Bill Passes Congress The Power of the Purse, Oversight and Representation

The US Presidency

Topic overview The Sources of Presidential Power Signing Statements, Pardons and Informal Powers Congressional Checks on the President Term Limits, the Press and Other Constraints The US Cabinet, EXOP and the Bureaucracy The Imperial and Imperilled Presidency

The US Supreme Court

Topic overview The Composition and Tenure of the Court How a Case Reaches the Supreme Court Judicial Review and Guardian of the Constitution The Debate over the Court's Power The Warren Court and Landmark Rulings Later Landmark Rulings and Court Eras

US Elections and Direct Democracy

Topic overview Congressional Elections and Electoral College Votes The Electoral College The Invisible Primary, Primaries and Caucuses Super Tuesday, Momentum and Delegates What Decides a US Election Campaign Finance Regulation Party Coalitions and Voting Behaviour Realignment, Dealignment, Split-Ticket Voting and Turnout Direct Democracy at State Level

Political Parties in the USA

Topic overview The Ideologies of the Two Main Parties Party Traditions and Organisation Polarisation and Ideological Sorting Factionalism and the Decline or Renewal Debate Two-Party Dominance and Ballot Access Third Parties and the Spoiler Role

Pressure Groups in the USA

Topic overview Pressure Groups and Political Pluralism Think Tanks, Lobbying and Group Methods PACs and Super PACs The Revolving Door, Iron Triangles and Group Power

Civil Rights in the USA

Topic overview Civil Liberties, Civil Rights and the Bill of Rights Entrenchment, Incorporation and the Rights Amendments Landmark Rights Rulings and the Supreme Court The Civil Rights Movement Rights Groups and the Courts Contested Rights Issues Today

Comparative Politics: Theoretical Approaches

Topic overview Structural, Rational and Cultural Approaches

Constitutions and Legislatures Compared

Topic overview The Two Constitutions Compared Devolution and Federalism Compared Parliament and Congress: Powers and Chambers Committees, Scrutiny and Control of Money

The Executives Compared

Topic overview Prime Minister and President: Office, Tenure and Cabinet Executive Power over Courts, Officials and Abroad

The Judiciaries Compared

Topic overview The Two Supreme Courts: Appointment, Tenure and Powers Judicial Impact, Activism and Restraint

Electoral and Party Systems Compared

Topic overview Electing Legislatures and Executives Compared Campaign Finance, Direct Democracy and Voting Compared Party Systems and Third-Party Barriers Party Organisation and Unity Compared Minor Parties and the Ideological Spectrum

Pressure Groups Compared

Topic overview Access Points and Group Power Compared Group Methods and Targets Compared

Civil Rights Compared

Topic overview How Rights Are Protected in Each Country Security, Guns and Reforming the Rights Framework

Liberalism

Topic overview The Individual and Individualism Limited Government and Foundational Equality Classical Liberalism and the Night-Watchman State Modern Liberalism and the Continuity Debate Locke and Mill Rawls, Wollstonecraft and Friedan

Conservatism

Topic overview Human Imperfection in Conservative Thought Organic Society and Paternalism Traditional, One-Nation and New Right Conservatism The New Right: Neo-Liberalism and Neo-Conservatism Hobbes, Burke and Oakeshott Rand and Nozick

Socialism

Topic overview Common Humanity, Equality and Social Class Alienation, Common Ownership and Social Justice The Vanguard Party, Gradualism and Social Democracy Revolutionary Socialism and Social Democracy Compared Marx, Engels and Luxemburg Webb, Crosland and Giddens

NationalismIdeology

Topic overview The Nation, the State and Self-Determination Views of the Nation and Economic Nationalism Minority Nationalism State Nationalism and Nation-Building Types of Nationalism Rousseau and Herder Mazzini, Garvey and Maurras

FeminismIdeology

Topic overview Sex, Gender and Patriarchy Feminist Views of the State Liberal and Radical Feminism Socialist, Difference and Post-Feminism Perkins Gilman and de Beauvoir Millett, Rowbotham and hooks

MulticulturalismIdeology

Topic overview Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition Assimilation, Integration and the Melting Pot Integration and Segregation Interculturalism and Civic Integration Berlin and Kymlicka Taylor and Parekh Modood: Multiculturalism and Citizenship

AnarchismIdeology

Topic overview The Anarchist Case against the State Propaganda by the Deed and the Charge of Chaos Individualist and Collectivist Anarchism Stirner and Bakunin Goldman, Kropotkin and Proudhon

EcologismIdeology

Topic overview Ecologism, Environmentalism and Ecocentrism Sustainability and the Limits to Growth Light Greens and Dark Greens Green Consumerism, Technology and Greenwashing Leopold and Carson Schumacher, Merchant and Bookchin

Liberalism

6 subtopics
18 things to know
Paper 3

What Liberalism covers

The individual as the unit of analysis, freedom, limited government and foundational equality — and the split between the classical liberalism of the minimal state and the modern liberalism that would use the state to make freedom real.

Where it is assessed

Paper 3

Political ideas, sat by everyone.

Check the AQA specification ↗

The 6 subtopics

Each one has its own page.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

Your recallNot started

Key term

What does liberalism treat as the basic unit of political analysis?

Key term

Distinguish egoistical individualism from developmental individualism.

Key term

Define negative freedom.

Process

Define meritocracy.

Process

A government proposes banning opinions that many citizens find offensive. How would a liberal respond?

Key term

Define limited government.

Key term

When and in what conditions did classical liberalism take shape?

Key term

Why did classical liberals describe the state as a necessary evil?

Key term

Which conception of liberty defines modern liberalism?

Process

Summarise the argument that modern liberalism betrays classical liberalism.

Process

Where do the two strands most clearly divide?

Key term

How does the modern liberal view of society differ from the classical view?

Process

How did Locke describe the state of nature?

Process

Why is Mill described as a bridge between classical and modern liberalism?

Key term

Which natural rights did Locke identify?

Process

State Rawls's two principles of justice.

Numbers

How did Friedan link women's rights to the American Civil Rights movement?

Key term

What kind of state does Rawls's theory support?

Take Liberalism further

The same content, four other ways.

Commonly confused

Pairs that lose marks when they are blurred together.

Negative freedom vs Positive freedom
Negative freedom: absence of external restraint. Positive freedom: capacity to achieve personal potential.
Egoistical individualism vs Developmental individualism
Egoistical individualism: person understood as self-seeking and autonomous. Developmental individualism: freedom understood through personal growth.

Questions from this topic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
What does liberalism treat as the basic unit of political analysis?
Model answer
The individual, whose rights, interests and self-fulfilment come before those of any group, class or nation.
2
Define individualism as liberals understand it.
Model answer
Individualism is the belief that each person is unique and morally sovereign, so society should be judged by how well it allows individuals to pursue their own ends.
3
Distinguish egoistical individualism from developmental individualism.
Model answer
Egoistical individualism sees people as self-interested and self-reliant, needing only to be left alone; developmental individualism sees freedom as the chance to grow and realise one's potential, which may require help.
4
Why do liberals regard human beings as rational?
Model answer
Liberals hold that people can reason about their own interests and settle disputes by discussion and evidence, which is why they can be trusted with liberty.
5
Is the liberal view of human nature optimistic or pessimistic?
Model answer
It is broadly optimistic: people are self-seeking but rational, educable and capable of cooperating peacefully for mutual benefit.
6
What does 'freedom under the law' mean?
Model answer
It means liberty is only secure when law restrains everyone equally, so that one person's freedom is not used to destroy another's.

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The Nature and Sources of the British Constitution

The Structure and Role of Parliament

The Prime Minister and Cabinet

The UK Judiciary

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The Code.

MinisterialCabinetParliamentary

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AA US court can strike down a hostile law using the constitution.

BA UK court cannot.

CChange must come from persuading legislators.

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Assemble a full-mark answer from its marking points, in the order an examiner wants them.

Veto means formal rejection of legislation.

TrueFalse

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Liberalism revision questions

What does Liberalism cover in AQA A-Level Politics?: 6 subtopics: the individual and individualism, limited government and foundational equality, classical liberalism and the night-watchman state, modern liberalism and the continuity debate, locke and mill and rawls, wollstonecraft and friedan. Each one has its own page with questions and model answers.
How is Liberalism organised?: By the AQA 7152 specification, subtopic by subtopic, so it matches the order you are taught it in.

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