Process
Eduqas A-Level Biology A400QS
Biological Molecules
Cell Structure and Organisation
Cell Membranes and Transport
Enzymes
Nucleic Acids and Their Functions
Importance of ATP
Photosynthesis
Respiration
Microbiology
Population Size and Ecosystems
Topic overviewPopulation growth and its measurementThe population growth curve and carrying capacityDensity dependent and density independent factorsSampling abundance and distributionEcosystems, habitats and communitiesEnergy transfer and pyramids of biomassSuccessionDecomposition and the carbon cycleThe nitrogen cycle and human interventionEutrophication and the effects of drainage
Human Impact on the Environment
Classification and Biodiversity
Topic overviewThe need for classification and the taxonomic hierarchyThe three domain and five kingdom systemsCharacteristic features of the five kingdomsAssessing relatedness by physical features and biochemistryThe species concept and the binomial systemBiodiversity, adaptation and natural selectionMeasuring biodiversity in a habitatGenetic and molecular measures of biodiversity
Mitosis and Meiosis
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Inheritance
Variation and Evolution
Application of Reproduction and Genetics
Topic overviewThe Human Genome Project, other sequenced genomes and genomics in healthcareScreening embryos, stem cells and the ethical issuesGenetic fingerprinting, PCR and electrophoresis in forensic workRecombinant DNA and the production of human insulinGenetically modified crops and gene therapy
Adaptations for Gas Exchange
Topic overviewSurface area to volume ratio and gas exchange in small organismsSpecialised respiratory surfaces and the need for ventilationGills and counter current flow in bony fishThe human breathing system and its histologyVentilation and gas exchange in humansThe insect tracheal systemThe angiosperm leaf, stomata and gas exchange
Adaptations for Transport
Topic overviewVascular systems compared across animal groupsThe mammalian heart and blood vesselsThe cardiac cycle and its controlBlood, haemoglobin and dissociation curvesThe Bohr effect, chloride shift and tissue fluidThe root and the uptake of waterThe endodermis and the entry to the xylemXylem, transpiration and cohesion-tensionThe potometer and xerophytes and hydrophytesPhloem and translocation
Adaptations for Nutrition
Homeostasis and the Kidney
The Nervous System
Immunology and Disease: Disease and Its TransmissionImmunology
Immunology and Disease: AntibioticsImmunology
Immunology and Disease: The Immune ResponseImmunology
Human Musculoskeletal Anatomy: Skeletal TissuesMusculoskeletal
Topic overviewCartilage and its three typesThe composition and functions of compact boneBone remodelling and the Haversian systemRickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis and brittle bone diseaseThe structure of skeletal muscleThe sliding filament theoryFast and slow twitch fibres, and energy for contraction
Human Musculoskeletal Anatomy: Structure and Function of the SkeletonMusculoskeletal
Human Musculoskeletal Anatomy: JointsMusculoskeletal
Neurobiology and Behaviour: The BrainNeurobiology
Neurobiology and Behaviour: NeuroscienceNeurobiology
Application of Reproduction and Genetics
Genetic fingerprinting, PCR and electrophoresis in forensic work
- 3 things to know
- Component 2
Overview
Function of the primers in the polymerase chain reaction and how electrophoresis separates DNA fragments.
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
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Key term
Why is the sample heated to about 95 °C at the start of each cycle?
Key term
Why is the polymerase used taken from a bacterium that lives in hot springs?
Questions from this subtopic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
What does the polymerase chain reaction achieve?
Model answer
It makes a very large number of copies of a chosen length of DNA from a very small starting sample.
- 2
Name the three steps of one cycle of the polymerase chain reaction and give the temperature of each.
Model answer
Denaturation at about 95 °C, annealing of the primers at about 55 °C, and extension at about 72 °C.
- 3
Why is the sample heated to about 95 °C at the start of each cycle?
Model answer
The heat breaks the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs and separates the double helix into two single strands.
- 4
State the function of the primers in the polymerase chain reaction.
Model answer
They are short single strands of DNA that bind to the ends of the target sequence and give the polymerase a point from which to start building.
- 5
Why is the polymerase used taken from a bacterium that lives in hot springs?
Model answer
The enzyme has to survive repeated heating to about 95 °C, and an enzyme from an organism of hot springs is not denatured at that temperature.
- 6
How many copies of a target sequence are present after 30 cycles, starting from one molecule?
Model answer
The number doubles every cycle, so after 30 cycles there are 2³⁰ copies, which is about 1.1 × 10⁹.
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