Key term
CCEA A-Level Chemistry 1110
Formulae, Equations and Amounts of Substance
Atomic Structure
Topic overviewProtons, neutrons and electronsAtomic number, mass number and the composition of ionsIsotopes and relative isotopic massRelative atomic, molecular and formula massMass spectra and relative atomic mass calculationsMass spectra of diatomic elementsElectronic configuration and the building up principleOrbitals, electron spin and orbital shapesThe s-, p-, d- and f-blocks of the Periodic TableIonisation energies and their equationsTrends in ionisation energy as evidence for shells and subshells
Bonding
Topic overviewIonic bonding and electron transferDot and cross diagrams for ionic compoundsCovalent bonding and the shared pairLone pairs and co-ordinate bondingDot and cross diagrams for covalent molecules and ionsThe octet rule and its limitationsElectronegativity and bond polarityMetallic bonding
Intermolecular Forces and Structure
Shapes of Molecules and Ions
Redox
The Halogens
Acid-Base Titrations
Qualitative Tests
Formulae and Amounts of a Substance
Nomenclature and Isomerism in Organic Chemistry
Alkanes
Topic overviewAlkanes as saturated hydrocarbonsBoiling points of alkanes and van der Waals' forcesBoiling points of branched isomersComplete and incomplete combustion of alkanesPollutants from alkane fuels and the atmosphereCatalytic convertersRadicals, homolytic fission and heterolytic fissionFree radical substitution of alkanes
Alkenes
Topic overviewUnsaturated hydrocarbons and the bromine water testSigma and pi bonds in the carbon–carbon double bondElectron density at C=C, reactivity and catalytic hydrogenationAddition of chlorine and bromine to alkenesAddition of hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromideElectrophiles, heterolytic fission and the addition mechanismCarbocation stability and Markovnikov additionAddition polymerisation of alkenes
Halogenoalkanes
Topic overviewClassification and boiling points of halogenoalkanesLaboratory preparation of a halogenoalkane from an alcoholNucleophiles and hydrolysis with aqueous alkaliReactions with ammonia and with potassium cyanideRelative rates of hydrolysis and carbon–halogen bond enthalpyElimination using ethanolic potassium hydroxideCFCs and the ozone layer
Alcohols
Infrared Spectroscopy
Energetics
Topic overviewExothermic and endothermic changesStandard conditions and the standard enthalpy changeEnthalpy level diagramsStandard enthalpies of combustion and formationStandard enthalpy of neutralisationMeasuring enthalpy changes by experimentEnthalpy calculations using q = mcΔTHess's Law and enthalpy cyclesIndirect enthalpy calculations using Hess's LawAverage bond enthalpies and their limitations
Kinetics
Equilibrium
Group II Elements and Their Compounds
Topic overviews-block character and electronic configurationTrends in atomic radius and first ionisation energyReactions of the elements with oxygen, water and dilute acidsThe oxides and their reactions with water and dilute acidsThermal stability of the carbonates and hydroxidesUses of magnesium oxide, calcium carbonate and limeSolubility trends and solubility curves
Lattice Enthalpy, Entropy and Free Energy
Topic overviewLattice enthalpy and the factors that control itBorn–Haber cycles for Group I halidesBorn–Haber cycles for Group II halides and oxidesEnthalpy of hydration and enthalpy of solutionCalculations on dissolving ionic compoundsEntropy and the limits of enthalpy changeStandard entropy change calculationsFree energy and the temperature of feasibility
Rates of Reaction
Equilibrium and Acid-Base Equilibria
Topic overviewEquilibrium concentrations from initial amountsKc expressions, values and unitsBrønsted–Lowry acids, bases and conjugate pairsKw, pH and the pH of strong acids and basesKa, pKa and the pH of weak acidsBuffer solutions and how they resist pH changeCalculating the pH of a buffer solutionTitration curves, indicators and the pH of salt solutions
Isomerism
Aldehydes and Ketones
Topic overviewStructure and naming of aldehydes and ketonesBoiling points and solubility of carbonyl compoundsPreparation from primary and secondary alcoholsReaction with hydrogen cyanide and the nucleophilic addition mechanismRacemic mixtures from nucleophilic addition2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine and the identification of carbonylsDistinguishing aldehydes from ketones, and reduction with lithal
Carboxylic Acids
Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
Topic overviewEsters and acyl chlorides: structure and namingBoiling points and solubility of monoestersMaking esters from alcohols with carboxylic acids or acyl chloridesThe laboratory preparation of a liquid esterFats and oils as esters of glycerolTransesterification, biodiesel and margarineReactions of acyl chlorides with water and alcohols
Aromatic Chemistry
Spectroscopy and Chromatography
Topic overviewThe mass spectrum: molecular ion and base peakFragmentation and the formulae of fragment ionsHigh resolution mass spectrometryNuclear magnetic resonance and the TMS standardChemically equivalent hydrogens and chemical shiftIntegration curvesSpin–spin splitting and the n+1 ruleDeducing a structure from an nmr spectrumPaper and thin-layer chromatographyGas–liquid chromatography
Volumetric Analysis
Transition Metals
Topic overviewThe characteristic properties of the transition metalsElectronic configurations of the metals and their ionsComplexes, ligands and coordination numberOxidation number, redox and disproportionationMonodentate, bidentate and polydentate ligandsLigand strength and the entropy of ligand replacementLigand replacement in copper(II) complexesThe colours of the aqueous transition metal ionsHydroxide precipitates with sodium hydroxidePrecipitates with aqueous ammonia and their dissolutionVanadium and the interconversion of its oxidation states
Electrode Potentials
Amines
Amides and Polymers
Amino Acids and Proteins
Lattice Enthalpy, Entropy and Free Energy
Born–Haber cycles for Group II halides and oxides
- 3 things to know
- Unit A2 1
Overview
Recall questions on how a Group II cycle differs from a Group I one, worked calculations for magnesium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium oxide, why the halogen terms are doubled, the second electron affinity of oxygen and why it is endothermic, why the second ionisation energy is much larger, and comparing MgO with CaO and with MgCl₂.
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
Your recallNot started
Key term
Why must the atomisation and electron affinity terms for chlorine be doubled in the cycle for magnesium chloride?
Key term
Explain why the second electron affinity of oxygen is endothermic.
Questions from this subtopic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
How does a Born–Haber cycle for a Group II halide differ from one for a Group I halide?
Model answer
Two ionisation energies are needed for the metal because the ion carries a 2+ charge, and two moles of halogen atoms must be formed and each given an electron.
- 2
Using ΔHf(MgCl₂) = −641 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔHat(Mg) = +148 kJ mol⁻¹, the first and second ionisation energies of magnesium = +738 and +1451 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔHat(Cl) = +121 kJ mol⁻¹ and the first electron affinity of chlorine = −349 kJ mol⁻¹, calculate the lattice enthalpy of magnesium chloride.
Model answer
The route to the gaseous ions totals 148 + 738 + 1451 + 2(121) + 2(−349) = +1881 kJ mol⁻¹, so the lattice enthalpy is −641 − 1881 = −2522 kJ mol⁻¹.
- 3
Why must the atomisation and electron affinity terms for chlorine be doubled in the cycle for magnesium chloride?
Model answer
One mole of MgCl₂ contains two moles of chloride ions, so two moles of chlorine atoms must be formed and each must gain an electron.
- 4
Define the second electron affinity of oxygen.
Model answer
It is the enthalpy change when one electron is added to each ion in one mole of gaseous O⁻ ions to form one mole of gaseous O²⁻ ions.
- 5
Explain why the second electron affinity of oxygen is endothermic.
Model answer
An electron is being forced onto an ion that already carries a negative charge, so energy must be supplied to overcome the repulsion between them.
- 6
Using ΔHf(MgO) = −602 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔHat(Mg) = +148 kJ mol⁻¹, ionisation energies +738 and +1451 kJ mol⁻¹, ΔHat(O) = +249 kJ mol⁻¹, the first electron affinity of oxygen = −141 kJ mol⁻¹ and the second = +798 kJ mol⁻¹, calculate the lattice enthalpy of magnesium oxide.
Model answer
The steps to the gaseous ions total 148 + 738 + 1451 + 249 − 141 + 798 = +3243 kJ mol⁻¹, so the lattice enthalpy is −602 − 3243 = −3845 kJ mol⁻¹.
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