Key term
CCEA A-Level Chemistry 1110
Formulae, Equations and Amounts of Substance
Atomic Structure
Topic overviewProtons, neutrons and electronsAtomic number, mass number and the composition of ionsIsotopes and relative isotopic massRelative atomic, molecular and formula massMass spectra and relative atomic mass calculationsMass spectra of diatomic elementsElectronic configuration and the building up principleOrbitals, electron spin and orbital shapesThe s-, p-, d- and f-blocks of the Periodic TableIonisation energies and their equationsTrends in ionisation energy as evidence for shells and subshells
Bonding
Topic overviewIonic bonding and electron transferDot and cross diagrams for ionic compoundsCovalent bonding and the shared pairLone pairs and co-ordinate bondingDot and cross diagrams for covalent molecules and ionsThe octet rule and its limitationsElectronegativity and bond polarityMetallic bonding
Intermolecular Forces and Structure
Shapes of Molecules and Ions
Redox
The Halogens
Acid-Base Titrations
Qualitative Tests
Formulae and Amounts of a Substance
Nomenclature and Isomerism in Organic Chemistry
Alkanes
Topic overviewAlkanes as saturated hydrocarbonsBoiling points of alkanes and van der Waals' forcesBoiling points of branched isomersComplete and incomplete combustion of alkanesPollutants from alkane fuels and the atmosphereCatalytic convertersRadicals, homolytic fission and heterolytic fissionFree radical substitution of alkanes
Alkenes
Topic overviewUnsaturated hydrocarbons and the bromine water testSigma and pi bonds in the carbon–carbon double bondElectron density at C=C, reactivity and catalytic hydrogenationAddition of chlorine and bromine to alkenesAddition of hydrogen chloride and hydrogen bromideElectrophiles, heterolytic fission and the addition mechanismCarbocation stability and Markovnikov additionAddition polymerisation of alkenes
Halogenoalkanes
Topic overviewClassification and boiling points of halogenoalkanesLaboratory preparation of a halogenoalkane from an alcoholNucleophiles and hydrolysis with aqueous alkaliReactions with ammonia and with potassium cyanideRelative rates of hydrolysis and carbon–halogen bond enthalpyElimination using ethanolic potassium hydroxideCFCs and the ozone layer
Alcohols
Infrared Spectroscopy
Energetics
Topic overviewExothermic and endothermic changesStandard conditions and the standard enthalpy changeEnthalpy level diagramsStandard enthalpies of combustion and formationStandard enthalpy of neutralisationMeasuring enthalpy changes by experimentEnthalpy calculations using q = mcΔTHess's Law and enthalpy cyclesIndirect enthalpy calculations using Hess's LawAverage bond enthalpies and their limitations
Kinetics
Equilibrium
Group II Elements and Their Compounds
Topic overviews-block character and electronic configurationTrends in atomic radius and first ionisation energyReactions of the elements with oxygen, water and dilute acidsThe oxides and their reactions with water and dilute acidsThermal stability of the carbonates and hydroxidesUses of magnesium oxide, calcium carbonate and limeSolubility trends and solubility curves
Lattice Enthalpy, Entropy and Free Energy
Topic overviewLattice enthalpy and the factors that control itBorn–Haber cycles for Group I halidesBorn–Haber cycles for Group II halides and oxidesEnthalpy of hydration and enthalpy of solutionCalculations on dissolving ionic compoundsEntropy and the limits of enthalpy changeStandard entropy change calculationsFree energy and the temperature of feasibility
Rates of Reaction
Equilibrium and Acid-Base Equilibria
Topic overviewEquilibrium concentrations from initial amountsKc expressions, values and unitsBrønsted–Lowry acids, bases and conjugate pairsKw, pH and the pH of strong acids and basesKa, pKa and the pH of weak acidsBuffer solutions and how they resist pH changeCalculating the pH of a buffer solutionTitration curves, indicators and the pH of salt solutions
Isomerism
Aldehydes and Ketones
Topic overviewStructure and naming of aldehydes and ketonesBoiling points and solubility of carbonyl compoundsPreparation from primary and secondary alcoholsReaction with hydrogen cyanide and the nucleophilic addition mechanismRacemic mixtures from nucleophilic addition2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine and the identification of carbonylsDistinguishing aldehydes from ketones, and reduction with lithal
Carboxylic Acids
Derivatives of Carboxylic Acids
Topic overviewEsters and acyl chlorides: structure and namingBoiling points and solubility of monoestersMaking esters from alcohols with carboxylic acids or acyl chloridesThe laboratory preparation of a liquid esterFats and oils as esters of glycerolTransesterification, biodiesel and margarineReactions of acyl chlorides with water and alcohols
Aromatic Chemistry
Spectroscopy and Chromatography
Topic overviewThe mass spectrum: molecular ion and base peakFragmentation and the formulae of fragment ionsHigh resolution mass spectrometryNuclear magnetic resonance and the TMS standardChemically equivalent hydrogens and chemical shiftIntegration curvesSpin–spin splitting and the n+1 ruleDeducing a structure from an nmr spectrumPaper and thin-layer chromatographyGas–liquid chromatography
Volumetric Analysis
Transition Metals
Topic overviewThe characteristic properties of the transition metalsElectronic configurations of the metals and their ionsComplexes, ligands and coordination numberOxidation number, redox and disproportionationMonodentate, bidentate and polydentate ligandsLigand strength and the entropy of ligand replacementLigand replacement in copper(II) complexesThe colours of the aqueous transition metal ionsHydroxide precipitates with sodium hydroxidePrecipitates with aqueous ammonia and their dissolutionVanadium and the interconversion of its oxidation states
Electrode Potentials
Amines
Amides and Polymers
Amino Acids and Proteins
Spectroscopy and Chromatography
- 10 subtopics
- 30 things to know
- Unit A2 2
What Spectroscopy and Chromatography covers
Spectroscopy and Chromatography is examined in Unit A2 2, Analytical, Transition Metals, Electrochemistry and Organic Nitrogen Chemistry, and drawn on again in Unit A2 3, Further Practical Chemistry. It covers the mass spectrum: molecular ion and base peak, fragmentation and the formulae of fragment ions, high resolution mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance and the TMS standard, chemically equivalent hydrogens and chemical shift, integration curves, spin–spin splitting and the n+1 rule, Deducing a structure from an nmr spectrum, paper and thin-layer chromatography and gas–liquid chromatography.
Where it is assessed
Unit A2 2
Analytical, Transition Metals, Electrochemistry and Organic Nitrogen Chemistry, and again in Unit A2 3, Further Practical Chemistry.
Check the CCEA specification ↗The 10 subtopics
Each one has its own page.
- The mass spectrum: molecular ion and base peakMolecular ion peak in a mass spectrum and base peak.Open →
- Fragmentation and the formulae of fragment ionsRecall questions on what fragmentation is and why only the charged piece is detected, suggesting formulae for the peaks at m/z 15, 29 and 43, finding the neutral fragment lost by subtraction, why propanone gives a strong peak at 43, distinguishing propanal from propanone and butane from methylpropane, and the pattern as a fingerprint.Open →
- High resolution mass spectrometryMolecular formula determination worth compared with a relative molecular mass and limitation of high resolution mass spectrometry.Open →
- Nuclear magnetic resonance and the TMS standardResonance here, chemical shift and two solvents used in proton nmr and explain the choice.Open →
- Chemically equivalent hydrogens and chemical shiftRecall questions on what makes two hydrogens equivalent, counting the environments in ethanol, propanone, methyl ethanoate, 1,2-dichloroethane and propan-2-ol, why different environments absorb at different frequencies, the effect of a nearby electronegative atom, typical shifts for alkane, alcohol, aldehyde and acid hydrogens, and why OH gives a broad line.Open →
- Integration curvesRecall questions on what the integration curve shows and how the step heights are read, why area is proportional to the number of hydrogens, that only a ratio is given, assigning ethanol's 3 : 2 : 1, identifying compounds from a 6 : 1 : 1 and a 9 : 1 ratio, simplifying measured heights, and confirming an OH by shaking with deuterium oxide.Open →
- Spin–spin splitting and the n+1 ruleRecall questions on what causes splitting and the statement of the n+1 rule, the singlet, doublet, triplet and quartet patterns with their height ratios, why ethanol's methyl is a triplet and its methylene a quartet, why the OH is a singlet, why equivalent hydrogens do not split each other, and predicting the patterns for named compounds.Open →
- Deducing a structure from an nmr spectrumEthyl ethanoate splitting pattern and one limitation of proton nmr.Open →
- Paper and thin-layer chromatographyTwo phases in paper chromatography, two phases in thin-layer chromatography and two-way chromatography.Open →
- Gas–liquid chromatographyTwo phases in gas–liquid chromatography, two gases used as the carrier and retention time.Open →
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
Your recallNot started
Key term
What does an integration curve show, how is it read, why does it work, and what does ethanol's 3 : 2 : 1 mean?
Process
How is the molecular ion formed?
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What is fragmentation?
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What does high resolution mass spectrometry measure?
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What does nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy detect?
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What causes spin–spin splitting?
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What three pieces of information does an nmr spectrum give?
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On what principle does all chromatography separate a mixture?
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What are the two phases in gas–liquid chromatography?
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What is the base peak?
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When a molecular ion breaks into two pieces, why does only one of them appear in the mass spectrum?
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Give the accurate masses of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.
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Why do hydrogen nuclei absorb radio frequency radiation in a magnetic field?
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What is meant by chemically equivalent hydrogen atoms?
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What does the integration curve on an nmr spectrum show?
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State the n+1 rule.
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In what order should a spectrum be worked through?
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What are the two phases in paper chromatography?
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Name two gases used as the carrier in gas–liquid chromatography
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Must the base peak and the molecular ion peak be the same peak?
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What fragment gives a peak at m/z 15?
Numbers
Calculate the accurate mass of C₃H₈O.
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What is meant by resonance in nuclear magnetic resonance?
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How many hydrogen environments does ethanol have?
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How is an nmr integration curve read?
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What splitting pattern arises from zero neighbouring hydrogens?
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A compound of formula C₂H₆O shows a single peak. What is it?
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What are the two phases in thin-layer chromatography?
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Why is the column in gas–liquid chromatography held in an oven?
Take Spectroscopy and Chromatography further
The same content, four other ways.
Questions from this topic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
What is the molecular ion peak in a mass spectrum?
Model answer
The peak produced by the whole molecule after it has lost a single electron, so its mass to charge ratio gives the relative molecular mass.
- 2
How is the molecular ion formed?
Model answer
A high energy electron knocks one electron out of the molecule, leaving a positively charged species with an unpaired electron.
- 3
Where does the molecular ion peak appear?
Model answer
At the highest mass to charge ratio of the significant peaks, ignoring the small isotope peaks above it.
- 4
What is the base peak?
Model answer
The tallest peak in the spectrum, produced by the most abundant ion, and conventionally assigned a relative abundance of 100.
- 5
Must the base peak and the molecular ion peak be the same peak?
Model answer
No, and usually they are not, because a fragment ion is often more stable and therefore more abundant than the whole molecular ion.
- 6
What does the M+1 peak arise from?
Model answer
The presence of carbon-13, which makes a small proportion of molecules one mass unit heavier than the rest.
What is inside Levo
Six ways to work the same material.
Spectroscopy and Chromatography revision questions
- What does Spectroscopy and Chromatography cover in CCEA A-Level Chemistry?
- 10 subtopics: the mass spectrum: molecular ion and base peak, fragmentation and the formulae of fragment ions, high resolution mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance and the tms standard, chemically equivalent hydrogens and chemical shift, integration curves, spin–spin splitting and the n+1 rule, deducing a structure from an nmr spectrum, paper and thin-layer chromatography and gas–liquid chromatography. Each one has its own page with questions and model answers.
- How is Spectroscopy and Chromatography organised?
- By the CCEA 1110 specification, subtopic by subtopic, so it matches the order you are taught it in.
Every question in Spectroscopy and Chromatography, on a schedule.
Attempt a question from memory, write the correct version, then attempt it again. Levo records the jump between your first attempt and your last, and brings each question back on the day you are due to forget it.
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