Key term
OCR A-Level Geography H481
Coastal Landscapes
Topic overviewThe coastal system: inputs, outputs and flows of energy and materialSediment cells, the sediment budget and the sources of coastal sedimentWinds, fetch and the generation of wavesConstructive and destructive waves, and how waves breakTides, tidal range and ocean currentsLithology, geological structure and the plan of the coastWeathering and mass movement on the coastMarine erosion, transport and depositionBays, headlands, cliffs and shore platformsGeos, blow holes, caves, arches, stacks and stumpsBeaches and the changing beach profileSpits, bars, tombolos and salt marshesHigh and low energy coastlines as characteristic landscapesEmergent coasts: raised beaches, marine terraces and abandoned cliffsSubmergent coasts: rias, fjords and shingle beachesCoastal management and its effect on the sediment budgetPorts, tourism and unintended change at the coast
Glaciated Landscapes
Topic overviewThe glacier system: inputs, stores, flows and outputsGlacier mass balance and the equilibrium lineClimate, latitude and altitude as controls on glaciationGeology, relief and aspect in glaciated landscapesFirn, glacier ice, valley glaciers and ice sheetsWarm-based and cold-based ice, and the mechanisms of glacier movementWeathering, mass movement and nivation in cold environmentsGlacial erosion and the marks it leaves on rockEntrainment, transport and deposition of glacial sedimentCorries, arêtes and pyramidal peaksGlacial troughs, hanging valleys and ribbon lakesMoraines, erratics, drumlins and till sheetsCharacteristic glaciated landscapes and how they change over timeGlacio-fluvial landforms of deglaciation: kames, eskers and outwash plainsPermafrost, patterned ground and pingosPeople in periglacial landscapes: resource extraction and thermokarstPeople in glaciated landscapes: dams, reservoirs and valley change
Dryland Landscapes
Topic overviewDryland landscape systems: inputs, stores, flows and outputsAridity, the water balance and the UNEP aridity indexRainfall, pressure belts and the global pattern of aridityRock type and structure in dryland landscapesRelief, aspect and desert microclimatesSediment supply and the dryland sediment budgetPolar drylands and the cold desertsHot deserts of the low and mid latitudesSemi-arid environments and the desert marginsWeathering and mass movement in dryland landscapesFluvial and aeolian processes in the desertWadis, canyons, pedestal rocks, ventifacts and desert pavementsBarchans, linear dunes, star dunes, alluvial fans and bajadasThe Mojave and the Sahara as desert landscape systemsInselbergs, pediments and relict landforms of past pluvialsFrost-shattered debris, nivation hollows and solifluction depositsWater supply, dams and landscape changeTourism, off-road vehicles and landscape change
Earth’s Life Support Systems
Topic overviewWater and carbon as the foundations of life on EarthOpen and closed systems, and the major global stores of water and carbonInputs and outputs of the water cycle: precipitation, snowmelt and evapotranspirationInputs and outputs of the carbon cycle, and the forms of chemical weatheringEvaporation, transpiration, condensation and the causes of rainfallInterception, runoff and catchment hydrologyPhotosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and combustion as carbon flowsNatural sequestration in oceans, vegetation, sediments and rockStores, flows and physical controls in the tropical rainforestDeforestation, farming and forest management in an Amazon drainage basinStores, flows and seasonal change in the Arctic tundraOil and gas development in the Arctic tundra, and its managementDynamic equilibrium, land use change and water extractionFossil fuel combustion, carbon sequestration and feedback loopsChange over time in the cycles, and the monitoring that records itLinks and interdependence between the water and carbon cyclesGlobal strategies to protect the carbon and water cycles
Changing Spaces; Making Places
Topic overviewThe characteristics that shape a place profileContrasting place profiles: Chelsea and BlackpoolPast and present connections, and the scales that embed a placeShifting flows of people, resources, money and ideasSpace, place and the effects of time-space compressionPerception, identity and emotional attachment to placeInformal representations of place in media and the artsFormal and statistical representations of placeMeasuring social inequality and its spatial patternsDeindustrialisation, globalisation and structural economic changeRecession, austerity and the government's role in inequalityLiving with inequality: Sparkbrook and Sutton ColdfieldPlayers driving economic change at different scalesThe Ruhr: a region reshaped by structural economic changePlacemaking and the marketing of places to investorsDesign, mixed use and community-led placemakingRebranding through reimaging and regenerationSalford Quays: from docks to MediaCityUK
Trade in the Contemporary World
Topic overviewMerchandise, services and capital flowsGlobal trade patterns: inter-regional and intra-regional flowsTrade, export value and human developmentTrade as a driver of growth, stability and developmentTrade inequalities, conflict and injusticeTransport, technology and the global supply chainMultinationals, outsourcing and the new international division of labourRegional trading blocs and the European UnionSouth–south trade and the growth of traded servicesIndia: trade patterns of an emerging economyThe United States: a core economy shaping world tradeEthiopia: trade on the periphery of the global system
Global Migration
Topic overviewThe global migrant population: size, composition and direction of flowInter-regional and intra-regional flows, and the world's major migration corridorsRemittances, the Human Development Index and the migration-development linkMigration as a driver of stability, growth and developmentInequality, conflict and injustice in the global migration systemEconomic globalisation and the emergence of new source and host areasYoung workers, women migrants and the growth of South-South movementConflict, persecution and the world's refugee movementsNational immigration and emigration policy, and how it is changingMexico: an emerging economy shaped by a migration corridorThe United Kingdom: an advanced country driving change in the migration systemNepal: a low-income country with little leverage over its migration
Human Rights
Topic overviewThe idea of human rights and its legal foundationsNorms, intervention and geopoliticsForced labour and modern slaveryMaternal mortality and access to safe childbirthCapital punishment and where it persistsPatterns of gender inequality: schooling, reproductive health and workWomen's rights in IndiaHuman rights abuse as a cause and a consequence of conflictInstitutions, treaties and laws that protect human rightsGlobal governance of human rights in eastern DR CongoShort-term relief and long-term change in DR Congo
Power and Borders
Topic overviewStates, nations and the sovereign control of territoryNorms, intervention and geopoliticsContested borders and the legacy of colonial boundariesTransnational corporations and economic sovereigntyTrading blocs, supranational institutions and pooled sovereigntyEthnic dominance, minority marginalisation and separatismUkraine: sovereignty and territorial integrity under challengeResources, conflict and the causes of geopolitical instabilityGlobal institutions, international law and the flows that carry interventionSouth Sudan: governing a conflict from global to localShort-term and long-term outcomes of intervention for people and placesThe Democratic Republic of the Congo: global governance in an LIDC
Climate Change
Topic overviewReconstructing past climates from natural archivesIcehouse and greenhouse Earth, from Cenozoic cooling to the HoloceneContinental drift and volcanic activity as drivers of climateMilankovitch cycles and changes in solar outputThe natural greenhouse effect and the atmosphere's greenhouse gasesWarming of the surface, atmosphere and oceans since the late 19th centuryRetreating ice, shrinking snow cover and rising sea levelWhy greenhouse gas emissions have risen since the pre-industrial eraThe changing global balance of emissions, from an AC to an EDCThe enhanced greenhouse effect and the global energy balanceThe evolution of the global warming debateGovernments, international organisations and the media in the climate debateClimate models, the carbon cycle and feedbackFuture emission scenarios and projected temperature and sea level riseImpacts on ecosystems, health and extreme weatherThe vulnerability of people and environments to climate changeMitigation through energy efficiency, fuel shifts and low-carbon energyCarbon capture and storage, forestry strategies and geoengineeringRetreat, accommodation and protection as adaptationAdapted homes, cities, transport and economiesContrasting countries: impacts, opportunities and the challenges of respondingThe IPCC, international agreements and policy from global to local
Disease Dilemmas
Topic overviewWays of classifying disease, and the epidemic to pandemic scaleMapping the burden of malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, diabetes and heart diseaseDisease diffusion, the Hägerstrand model and the barriers that slow itTemperature, rainfall, relief and water supply as controls on diseaseMosquitoes, vectors and the seasonal rhythm of outbreaksClimate change, emerging infections and diseases that jump from animalsCholera in Haiti after the 2010 earthquakeRising living standards and the epidemiological transitionDiseases of poverty and diseases of affluenceAir pollution and lung cancer in ChinaMalaria in Nigeria: from causes to controlCardiovascular disease in the United KingdomThe World Health Organization and the surveillance of global outbreaksMédecins Sans Frontières and the West African Ebola epidemicPhysical barriers to treatment and the fight against HIV and AIDSMedicinal plants, their growing conditions and the trade that threatens themPharmaceutical transnationals and the global flow of medicinesEradication campaigns, grassroots education and the role of women
Exploring Oceans
Topic overviewThe size and spread of the world's oceansThe shape of the sea floor, from shelf to trenchSalinity and temperature through the water columnSurface currents and the great ocean gyresThe North Atlantic conveyor, from Gulf Stream to deep return flowLight, warmth and nutrients as limits on ocean lifeFood webs in the inter-tidal zone and the deep seaHarvesting Southern Ocean krillWhaling, stakeholder conflict and resource thresholdsOcean energy: oil, gas, waves and tidesMining the deep sea bed for metalsThe global commons, maritime zones and ocean governanceThe major sources of marine pollutionThe Deepwater Horizon oil spill and its aftermathDrifting plastic and the North Pacific garbage patchOcean acidification, warming seas and coral bleachingRising sea level and low-lying island communitiesSea ice, the albedo feedback and irreversible thresholdsThe changing Arctic: peoples, politics and new sea routesShipping lanes, container ships and seaborne tradeNaval power and contested seasPiracy and migration by sea
Future of Food
Topic overviewFood security and its three pillarsMeasuring hunger: undernourishment data and food security indicesShifting patterns of food security between and within countriesClimate, soil, water and relief as controls on where food can be grownThe journey of food from farm to plate, and the waste it leavesTypes of farming: intensive, extensive, subsistence and commercialGlobalisation, rising demand and global tastesThe issues and opportunities of a globalised food industryLand ownership, competition and land grabbingMalthus, Boserup and the population–resource debateYemen: conflict, aridity and the collapse of food accessVulnerable people and the pinchpoints in global food distributionDesertification and the drylands of the SahelExtreme weather, water scarcity and tectonic shocks to food productionInuit hunting and food security in the ArcticSalinisation, deforestation and agrochemical pollution from farmingThe Aral Sea: a landscape remade by irrigationHealth effects of hunger, over-nutrition and agrochemical exposureMalawi and the United States: contrasting experiences of food insecurityTrade policy, the World Trade Organization and appropriate aidAgribusiness, food TNCs, supermarkets and fair tradeFrom emergency relief to capacity building and system redesign
Hazardous Earth
Topic overviewThe Earth's internal structure and the global pattern of platesContinental drift and the evidence from fossils, rocks and ancient glaciationsSea-floor spreading, palaeomagnetism and the age of the ocean floorDivergent boundaries and the landforms of the mid-ocean ridgesSubduction at oceanic-continental and oceanic-oceanic boundariesContinental collision and conservative boundariesMagma chemistry, viscosity and explosive volcanism at subduction zonesEffusive eruptions, shield volcanoes and hot-spot volcanismVolcano size and shape, super-volcanoes and the Volcanic Explosivity IndexLava flows, pyroclastic flows and volcanic gasesTephra, ashfall, lahars and volcanic tsunamisEarthquake focus, depth and the seismic waves releasedMeasuring earthquakes: Richter, moment magnitude and Mercalli intensityFault scarps, rift valleys and the landscapes faulting createsGround shaking, ground displacement and liquefactionEarthquake-triggered landslides, avalanches and floodingTsunamis from sea-bed uplift and underwater landslidesWhy people choose to live in tectonically active placesThe impacts of volcanic eruptions in countries at contrasting levels of developmentThe impacts of earthquakes in countries at contrasting levels of developmentPredicting, monitoring and managing volcanic hazardsLand-use zoning, building design and managing earthquake riskChanging risk over time and the disaster risk equationThe Park model of disaster response
Geographical Skills
Topic overviewGeographical data, its types and the ethics of using itCollecting data: sampling, measurement error and digital devicesQualitative methods, sources and drawing conclusionsMeasures of central tendency and dispersionCorrelation, lines of best fit and Spearman's rankSignificance tests: chi-squared, Mann-Whitney U and the t-testClimate graphs, maps and graphical techniques
Disease Dilemmas
- 18 subtopics
- 45 things to know
- Component 03
What Disease Dilemmas covers
Disease Dilemmas is examined in Component 03, Geographical debates. It covers how disease is classified, from endemic to pandemic; the global burden of malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, diabetes and heart disease; disease diffusion and the Hägerstrand model; the physical controls on disease, from climate, relief and water to vectors, seasons and diseases that jump from animals; cholera in Haiti after the 2010 earthquake; and the epidemiological transition and diseases of poverty and affluence. It also covers air pollution and lung cancer in China, malaria in Nigeria and cardiovascular disease in the United Kingdom; the World Health Organization, and Médecins Sans Frontières in the West African Ebola epidemic; physical barriers to treatment and the fight against HIV and AIDS; medicinal plants and pharmaceutical transnationals; and eradication campaigns, grassroots education and the role of women.
The 18 subtopics
Each one has its own page.
- Ways of classifying disease, and the epidemic to pandemic scaleRecall questions on infectious and non-infectious, communicable and noncommunicable, and contagious disease, malaria as communicable but not contagious, endemic, epidemic and pandemic disease, vector-borne and chronic disease, classifying tuberculosis, and the difference between incidence and prevalence.Open →
- Mapping the burden of malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, diabetes and heart diseaseRecall questions on the causes, vectors and global distribution of malaria and its toll on young children in Africa, the distribution and prevalence of HIV in southern Africa, the pattern and scale of tuberculosis, the global rise and distribution of diabetes, cardiovascular disease as the leading cause of death, and contrasting disease maps.Open →
- Disease diffusion, the Hägerstrand model and the barriers that slow itRecall questions on disease diffusion, expansion, contagious, hierarchical and relocation diffusion, Torsten Hägerstrand's four-stage model and its S-shaped curve, the neighbourhood effect, physical and socio-economic barriers to diffusion and why they are permeable, and how air travel has changed the spread of disease.Open →
- Temperature, rainfall, relief and water supply as controls on diseaseRecall questions on why malaria is confined to warm regions and limited by altitude, standing water and heavy rainfall, drought and water-borne disease, schistosomiasis and irrigation schemes, river blindness beside fast rivers, the African meningitis belt and the Harmattan, relief and access to healthcare, humidity, and tropical rainfall patterns.Open →
- Mosquitoes, vectors and the seasonal rhythm of outbreaksRecall questions on vectors and mosquito ecology, Aedes aegypti and dengue in tropical cities, the tsetse fly and sleeping sickness, ticks and Lyme disease, malaria seasons in the Sahel and the Congo Basin, monsoon rains in South Asia, winter influenza, cholera's two peaks in Bangladesh, drought and water storage, and using transmission seasons.Open →
- Climate change, emerging infections and diseases that jump from animalsRecall questions on emerging infectious diseases, how warming extends vector-borne disease, West Nile virus in the Americas, the tsetse fly's changing range, longer tick seasons in northern Europe, flooding and water-borne disease, zoonotic diseases and their share of emerging infections, avian influenza, rabies, and the human activities that drive spillover.Open →
- Cholera in Haiti after the 2010 earthquakeRecall questions on the 2010 Haiti earthquake, the start and scale of the cholera epidemic in the Artibonite valley, how Vibrio cholerae spreads, why Haiti was vulnerable, the environmental and human factors behind its spread, its effects on patients and on society and the economy, oral rehydration, national and international responses, and the link between hazards and disease.Open →
- Rising living standards and the epidemiological transitionRecall questions on Omran's epidemiological transition and its stages, how clean water, sanitation and nutrition change a population's disease profile, the link to the demographic transition, the double burden of disease in India, why the transition proceeds at different speeds, and why life expectancy can hide the disease burden.Open →
- Diseases of poverty and diseases of affluenceRecall questions on diseases of poverty and of affluence, the communicable disease burden of LIDCs, undernutrition and infection, indoor air pollution, noncommunicable disease in advanced and urbanising countries, why the affluence label misleads, neglected tropical diseases, household costs of illness, tuberculosis in rich countries, and cheap health measures.Open →
- Air pollution and lung cancer in ChinaRecall questions on PM2.5 and lung cancer in Chinese cities, the coal, traffic and household sources of pollution, Beijing's 2013 airpocalypse against the WHO guideline, how particulates cause cancer, lung cancer cases and smoking in China, winter pollution in the north, the 2013 action plan and its measures, results in Beijing, and international action.Open →
- Malaria in Nigeria: from causes to controlRecall questions on Nigeria's share of global malaria, Plasmodium falciparum and Anopheles mosquitoes, transmission in southern and northern Nigeria, environmental and human causes, the groups most at risk, effects on education and the economy, insecticidal nets, indoor spraying, seasonal chemoprevention, artemisinin therapy, rapid tests, indirect strategies, international funders, and the malaria vaccine.Open →
- Cardiovascular disease in the United KingdomRecall questions on cardiovascular disease and atherosclerosis, its prevalence, deaths and cost in the United Kingdom, modifiable risk factors such as salt and smoking, regional, deprivation, ethnic and cultural patterns, the falling death rate, the NHS Health Check and medical and government strategies, and the WHO action plan, SDG target 3.4, HEARTS, tobacco treaty, SHAKE and REPLACE.Open →
- The World Health Organization and the surveillance of global outbreaksRecall questions on the founding and functions of the World Health Organization, how it gathers disease data, Public Health Emergencies of International Concern, outbreak prediction and influenza vaccine strains, the emergence, spread and containment of SARS, the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, and the weakness of relying on national reporting.Open →
- Médecins Sans Frontières and the West African Ebola epidemicRecall questions on Médecins Sans Frontières, the start and scale of the West African Ebola epidemic in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone, how Ebola spreads, Liberia's death toll, the ELWA 3 centre, MSF's wider roles, isolation and traditional funerals, MSF's 2014 warning, and the advantages and limits of NGOs in an epidemic.Open →
- Physical barriers to treatment and the fight against HIV and AIDSRecall questions on how mountains, floods and remoteness hinder healthcare and vaccination, remoteness as protection, the cold chain, drones and community health workers, how HIV causes AIDS and spreads, screening, antiretroviral therapy and its falling cost, international funding, education strategies, and stigma.Open →
- Medicinal plants, their growing conditions and the trade that threatens themRecall questions on medicines from nature, sweet wormwood and artemisinin, the rosy periwinkle of Madagascar, its growing conditions and the vincristine and vinblastine drawn from it, the plant material needed, its international trade and unequal benefit sharing, the threats wild harvesting and cultivation pose to species and ecosystems, sustainable trade, and forest loss.Open →
- Pharmaceutical transnationals and the global flow of medicinesRecall questions on pharmaceutical transnationals, GlaxoSmithKline and its malaria vaccine, the cost of developing medicines, patents and the debate over them, generic medicines and HIV treatment, compulsory licensing, the global flows a drug company creates, where research clusters, the 10/90 gap, drug donation programmes, and tiered pricing.Open →
- Eradication campaigns, grassroots education and the role of womenRecall questions on eradication and elimination, smallpox and ring vaccination, the polio campaign and its difficulties, the strengths and weaknesses of top-down strategies, grassroots strategies and guinea worm, why women and girls' education are central to disease control, India's Accredited Social Health Activists, and combining top-down and bottom-up approaches.Open →
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
Your recallNot started
Key term
Describe the global distribution of HIV.
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Explain why adult HIV prevalence can exceed one in five in parts of southern Africa.
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Why do mosquito populations peak in warm, humid places close to water?
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Why does the pattern of malaria in the Sahel differ from that in the Congo Basin?
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Explain how undernutrition and infection reinforce one another.
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What international action helps tackle air pollution and the cancers it causes?
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How does malaria affect children's education in Nigeria?
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Describe the economic impact of malaria on Nigeria.
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Why are people in deprived areas of the UK more likely to die early from heart disease?
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Explain how mountainous relief obstructs a vaccination programme.
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Why is the rosy periwinkle often used as an example of unequal benefit sharing?
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How does harvesting from the wild endanger medicinal plant species?
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Describe the global flows created by a pharmaceutical transnational.
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Distinguish the eradication of a disease from its elimination.
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Define the term disease diffusion.
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Why is malaria largely confined to warm regions?
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Which animals act as the reservoir for West Nile virus, and how do people become infected?
Numbers
When and where did Haiti's cholera outbreak begin?
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Who first set out the model of epidemiological transition?
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Why does declaring an international public health emergency matter?
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Which three countries bore the brunt of the West African Ebola epidemic?
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Define the term non-infectious disease.
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What is expansion diffusion?
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How does altitude limit the distribution of malaria?
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Why do hot summers produce more cases of West Nile virus?
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How many cases and deaths did Haiti's cholera epidemic eventually cause?
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How does access to clean water change a population's disease profile?
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Name three diseases of poverty.
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Name three sources of the particulate pollution over Chinese cities.
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Explain how atherosclerosis leads to a heart attack.
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How does the World Health Organization help predict disease outbreaks?
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What was ELWA 3, and why did it matter?
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Give three physical barriers that hinder the delivery of healthcare.
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What is a pharmaceutical transnational corporation?
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What does it mean to eradicate a disease?
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What distinguishes a communicable disease from a noncommunicable one?
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Which parasite causes the most dangerous form of malaria, and which insect carries it?
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What is hierarchical diffusion?
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Why is standing water essential to mosquito-borne disease?
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Which mosquito transmits dengue, and where does it breed?
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Why are tick seasons lengthening in northern Europe?
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Which bacterium causes cholera, and how is it transmitted?
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Why does improved sanitation reduce disease even for people who do not use the new facilities?
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What is meant by a disease of affluence?
Take Disease Dilemmas further
The same content, four other ways.
Commonly confused
Pairs that lose marks when they are blurred together.
Incidence vs Prevalence
Incidence: the count of new cases arising over a set period, which shows how fast a disease is spreading. Prevalence: The count of all existing cases at one moment in time, which shows the total burden a population is carrying.
Endemic vs Epidemic
Endemic: a disease permanently present in a population or area at a fairly steady and predictable background level. Epidemic: An outbreak in which cases rise well above the level normally expected in a population within one area or country.
Eradication vs Elimination
Eradication: reduction of a disease worldwide to zero cases and for good, so that control measures are no longer needed anywhere. Elimination: Reduction of a disease to zero cases within one country or region, which still requires measures to keep it from returning.
Questions from this topic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
What is meant by an infectious disease?
Model answer
An infectious disease is caused by a pathogen, such as a bacterium, virus, fungus or parasite, that enters the body and multiplies inside it.
- 2
Define the term non-infectious disease.
Model answer
A non-infectious disease is one not caused by a pathogen, arising instead from genetic, lifestyle, dietary or environmental factors.
- 3
What distinguishes a communicable disease from a noncommunicable one?
Model answer
A communicable disease can be passed from one person or animal to another, whereas a noncommunicable disease cannot be transmitted and develops from genetic, lifestyle or environmental causes.
- 4
Why is a contagious disease only one kind of communicable disease?
Model answer
A contagious disease spreads by direct or indirect contact between people, but communicable diseases also include those carried by vectors, water or food, which need no contact between hosts.
- 5
Give an example of a communicable disease that is not contagious, and explain why it is not.
Model answer
Malaria is communicable but not contagious, because it passes from person to person only through the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito and never by contact.
- 6
Define the term endemic disease.
Model answer
An endemic disease is one permanently present in a population or area at a fairly steady and predictable background level.
What is inside Levo
Six ways to work the same material.
Disease Dilemmas revision questions
- What does Disease Dilemmas cover in OCR A-Level Geography?
- 18 subtopics: ways of classifying disease, and the epidemic to pandemic scale, mapping the burden of malaria, hiv, tuberculosis, diabetes and heart disease, disease diffusion, the hägerstrand model and the barriers that slow it, temperature, rainfall, relief and water supply as controls on disease, mosquitoes, vectors and the seasonal rhythm of outbreaks, climate change, emerging infections and diseases that jump from animals, cholera in haiti after the 2010 earthquake, rising living standards and the epidemiological transition, diseases of poverty and diseases of affluence, air pollution and lung cancer in china, malaria in nigeria: from causes to control, cardiovascular disease in the united kingdom, the world health organization and the surveillance of global outbreaks, médecins sans frontières and the west african ebola epidemic, physical barriers to treatment and the fight against hiv and aids, medicinal plants, their growing conditions and the trade that threatens them, pharmaceutical transnationals and the global flow of medicines and eradication campaigns, grassroots education and the role of women. Each one has its own page with questions and model answers.
- How is Disease Dilemmas organised?
- By the OCR H481 specification, subtopic by subtopic, so it matches the order you are taught it in.
Every question in Disease Dilemmas, on a schedule.
Attempt a question from memory, write the correct version, then attempt it again. Levo records the jump between your first attempt and your last, and brings each question back on the day you are due to forget it.
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