Explain the paradox often raised against attempts to justify animal experiments.

Animals are said to be similar enough to humans for the results to transfer, yet different enough for the procedures to be acceptable; since human behaviour is shaped by language, culture and conscious reflection that no animal model contains, critics argue a researcher cannot consistently claim both.

What is animal-assisted therapy?

A planned intervention in which a trained animal is deliberately included in treatment, with therapeutic goals set and progress monitored, rather than the animal simply being present as a pet.

Who is credited with pioneering the therapeutic use of animals, and how did the idea arise?

Levinson (1962), after noticing that a withdrawn child in his practice began to communicate in the presence of his dog.

Give three settings in which animals are used therapeutically.

Dogs visiting hospitals and care homes to reduce agitation in people with dementia, horses used in riding programmes with autistic children and children with physical disabilities, and assistance dogs trained to support people with sensory impairments or with post-traumatic stress.

Give two reasons for caution in evaluating animal-assisted therapy.

Studies are often small, uncontrolled and impossible to run blind, so expectancy effects are hard to rule out; and the practice raises its own ethical question, because the therapy animal is itself being used as an instrument.

Eduqas A-Level Psychology A290QS

Biological Approach

Topic overview Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Evolutionary influences and Localisation of brain function Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Neurotransmitters and Weaknesses of the approach Therapy derived from the approach: Drug therapy Therapy derived from the approach: Psychosurgery Classic research: the methodology and procedures Classic research: the findings, conclusions and evaluation Contemporary debate

Psychodynamic Approach

Topic overview Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Influence of childhood experiences and Unconscious mind Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Tripartite personality and Weaknesses of the approach Therapy derived from the approach: Dream analysis Therapy derived from the approach: Psychodrama Classic research: Methodology and Procedures Classic research: Findings and Conclusions Classic research: Ethical issues and social implications Contemporary debate: the mother as primary care-giver — the arguments Contemporary debate: the mother as primary care-giver — the evidence and conclusion

Behaviourist Approach

Topic overview Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Blank slate and Behaviour learnt through conditioning Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Humans and animals learn in similar ways Therapy derived from the approach: Aversion therapy Therapy derived from the approach: Systematic desensitisation Classic research: Methodology and Procedures Classic research: Findings and Conclusions Classic research: Ethical issues and social implications Contemporary debate: using conditioning to control children — the arguments Contemporary debate: using conditioning to control children — the evidence and conclusion

Cognitive Approach

Topic overview Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Computer analogy, Internal mental processes and Schemas Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Strengths of the approach and Weaknesses of the approach Therapy derived from the approach: Cognitive behavioural therapy Therapy derived from the approach: Rational emotive behaviour therapy Classic research: Methodology and Procedures Classic research: Findings and Conclusions Classic research: Ethical issues and social implications Contemporary debate: the reliability of eye-witness testimony — the arguments Contemporary debate: the reliability of eye-witness testimony — the evidence and conclusion

Positive Approach

Topic overview Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Acknowledgement of free will and Focus on 'the good life'Assumptions and evaluation of the approach: Strengths of the approach and Weaknesses of the approach Therapy derived from the approach: Mindfulness Therapy derived from the approach: Quality of life therapy Classic research: Methodology and Procedures Classic research: Findings and Conclusions Classic research: Ethical issues and social implications Contemporary debate: the relevance of positive psychology today — the arguments Contemporary debate: the relevance of positive psychology today — the evidence and conclusion

Comparing the Five Approaches

Topic overview Comparison of the five approaches: Similarities between the approaches Comparison of the five approaches: Nature-nurture debate, Reductionism and holism

Core Studies in Social and Developmental Psychology

Topic overview Social psychology core study: Milgram (1963) — Method and procedure, Results Social psychology core study: Milgram (1963) — Conclusions and Evaluation of the study Developmental psychology core study: Kohlberg (1968) — Method and procedure, Results Developmental psychology core study: Kohlberg (1968) — Conclusions and Evaluation of the study

Planning Psychological Research

Topic overview Deciding on a research question: Aim of the research and Independent variables Deciding on a research question: Co-variables, Operationalisation of variables and Extraneous variables Methodologies: Experiments, Participant observations and Non-participant observations Methodologies: Content analysis, Structured interviews / questionnaires and Correlational studies Methodologies: Case studies, Cross-sectional studies and Self-reports Location of research Participants and sampling: Target populations, Sampling frames and Opportunity sampling Participants and sampling: Systematic sampling, Stratified sampling and Quota sampling Participants and sampling: Self-selected sampling Experimental design

Data Handling, Statistics and Mathematical Skills

Topic overview Levels of measurement Graphical representation: Frequency tables and Graphical representation (including line graphs Graphical representation: Distribution curves (including normal, positive and negative skewed Descriptive statistics: Measures of central tendency Descriptive statistics: Measures of dispersion and Calculating from a set of results Inferential statistics: Chi Square test Inferential statistics: Mann Whitney U test and Critical values from tables Mathematical requirements (Appendix A): Standard form and unit conversion Mathematical requirements (Appendix A): Calculations for statistical tests

Evaluating and Validating Research

Topic overview Reliability Validity: Internal validity, External validity and Specific validity issues (including researcher bias Validity: Ways of dealing with issues of validity Ethics: Confidentiality and Risk to the participants’ values Ethics: Valid consent and Managing the risk posed by ethical issues (including the use of ethics The role of the scientific community: Peer review and its purposes, Criticisms of peer review The role of the scientific community: Sections of a psychological report

Personal Investigations and Novel Research Scenarios

Topic overview Personal investigations: applying — Hypotheses and variables, Methodology and experimental design Personal investigations: applying research methods to first-hand investigations — Sampling Personal investigations: applying research methods to first-hand investigations — Inferential statistics Application of research methods to a novel scenario

Addictive BehavioursAddictive

Topic overview Characteristics of the behaviour: What the behaviour is, How it is recognised and diagnosed Characteristics of the behaviour: How common it is, Effects on the individual and on society Biological explanations: Addiction genes and Disease of the brain Biological explanations: Dopamine Individual differences explanations: Cognitive biases and Field dependence Individual differences explanations: Lang's addictive personality traits Social psychological explanations: Co-morbidity with mental and Peer pressure Social psychological explanations: Role of the media Methods of modifying the behaviour: Agonist and antagonist substitution Methods of modifying the behaviour: Aversion therapy

Autistic Spectrum BehavioursAutistic spectrum

Topic overview Characteristics of the behaviour: What the behaviour is, How it is recognised and diagnosed Characteristics of the behaviour: How common it is, Effects on the individual and on society Biological explanations: Amygdala dysfunction and Chloride ions at birth Biological explanations: Genetic predisposition Individual differences explanations: Gender differences and Theory of mind Individual differences explanations: Weak central coherence theory Extreme male brain and empathising-systemising theories The refrigerator mother theory, and evaluation Methods of modifying the behaviour: Picture Exchange Communication System Methods of modifying the behaviour: Relationship Development Intervention Methods of modifying the behaviour

Bullying BehavioursBullying

Topic overview Characteristics of the behaviour: What the behaviour is, How it is recognised and diagnosed Characteristics of the behaviour: How common it is, Effects on the individual and on society Biological explanations: Bullying genes and Evolved gender differences Biological explanations: Hormones Individual differences explanations: Cognitive biases and Narcissistic personality Individual differences explanations: Threatened egotism, narcissism and theory of mind Social psychological explanations: Cultural differences and In-group / out-group Social psychological explanations: Moral disengagement Methods of modifying the behaviour: Creating A Peaceful School Learning Environment Methods of modifying the behaviour: Olweus Bullying Prevention Programme Methods of modifying the behaviour

Criminal BehavioursCriminal

Topic overview Characteristics of the behaviour: What the behaviour is Characteristics of the behaviour: How it is recognised and diagnosed Biological explanations: Disinhibition hypothesis and Inherited criminality personality theory Biological explanations: Role of the amygdala Individual differences explanations: Eysenck's criminal personality Individual differences explanations: Intelligence factors and Psychopathic personality Social psychological explanations: Differential association Social psychological explanations: Gender socialisation and Normalisation theory Methods of modifying the behaviour: Anger management Methods of modifying the behaviour: Restorative justice

SchizophreniaSchizophrenia

Topic overview Characteristics of the behaviour: What the behaviour is, How it is recognised and diagnosed Characteristics of the behaviour: How common it is, Effects on the individual and on society Biological explanations: Dopamine hypothesis and Enlarged ventricles Biological explanations: Cannabis, genetics and the diathesis-stress model Individual differences explanations: Thought disorder Individual differences explanations: Schizophrenogenic mother and Sex differences Social psychological explanations: Cultural norms Social psychological explanations: Dysfunctional families Social psychological explanations: Expressed emotion Methods of modifying the behaviour: Antipsychotic drugs Methods of modifying the behaviour: Cognitive behavioral therapy

StressStress

Topic overview Characteristics of the behaviour: What the behaviour is, How it is recognised and diagnosed Characteristics of the behaviour: How common it is, Effects on the individual and on society Biological explanations: Adrenaline and Evolutionary adaptation Biological explanations: Stress genes Individual differences explanations: Type A behaviour and hardiness Individual differences explanations: Self-efficacy Social psychological explanations: Daily hassles and Life events Social psychological explanations: Locus of control and control at work Methods of modifying the behaviour: Beta blockers Methods of modifying the behaviour: Stress inoculation training

Controversies in Psychology

Topic overview Cultural bias: Cross cultural studies and Difference or bias Cultural bias: Ethnocentrism, Historical and social context Ethical costs of conducting research: Benefits to society and the economy, Individual participants Ethical costs of conducting research: Potentially negative consequences for society The use of non-human animals: Why animals are used, comparative psychology and ethology The use of non-human animals: Therapy, speciesism and the BPS Guidelines Scientific status of psychology: Features of science, Popper and Kuhn Scientific status of psychology: Methods, benefits and costs of being a science Sexism: Gender difference or gender bias Sexism: Heterosexism, Historical and social context, 'invisibility' of women in psychology

Controversies in Psychology

The use of non-human animals: Therapy, speciesism and the BPS Guidelines

3 things to know
Component 3 Controversies

Overview

Animal-assisted therapy and its evidence, speciesism and the arguments of Singer, Regan and Gray, the three Rs, the BPS guidelines and UK law on animal research, and Bateson's decision cube.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

Your recallNot started

Numbers

Give two proposed mechanisms by which contact with an animal might produce a therapeutic effect.

Numbers

Define speciesism, and say who introduced the term.

Evaluation

How does Regan's (1983) argument differ from Singer's?

Questions from this subtopic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
Explain the paradox often raised against attempts to justify animal experiments.
Model answer
Animals are said to be similar enough to humans for the results to transfer, yet different enough for the procedures to be acceptable; since human behaviour is shaped by language, culture and conscious reflection that no animal model contains, critics argue a researcher cannot consistently claim both.
2
What is animal-assisted therapy?
Model answer
A planned intervention in which a trained animal is deliberately included in treatment, with therapeutic goals set and progress monitored, rather than the animal simply being present as a pet.
3
Who is credited with pioneering the therapeutic use of animals, and how did the idea arise?
Model answer
Levinson (1962), after noticing that a withdrawn child in his practice began to communicate in the presence of his dog.
4
Give three settings in which animals are used therapeutically.
Model answer
Dogs visiting hospitals and care homes to reduce agitation in people with dementia, horses used in riding programmes with autistic children and children with physical disabilities, and assistance dogs trained to support people with sensory impairments or with post-traumatic stress.
5
Give two proposed mechanisms by which contact with an animal might produce a therapeutic effect.
Model answer
The animal may act as a social catalyst that makes conversation with the therapist easier and less threatening, and interaction with a companion animal appears to reduce physiological arousal, with Nagasawa et al. (2015) reporting rises in oxytocin in both dog and owner during mutual gaze.
6
Give two reasons for caution in evaluating animal-assisted therapy.
Model answer
Studies are often small, uncontrolled and impossible to run blind, so expectancy effects are hard to rule out; and the practice raises its own ethical question, because the therapy animal is itself being used as an instrument.

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