Name the reaction by which ethene is converted into ethanol industrially.

It is the direct hydration of ethene, in which water is added across the double bond.

The forward reaction is exothermic and reduces the number of moles of gas. Explain why a high pressure is chosen.

There are two moles of gas on the left and one on the right, so raising the pressure shifts the equilibrium towards ethanol and raises the yield.

Explain why a temperature as high as 300 °C is used even though the forward reaction is exothermic.

A lower temperature would give a better equilibrium yield but the reaction would be far too slow, so the temperature chosen is a compromise with the rate.

Eduqas A-Level Chemistry A410QS

Formulae and Equations

Topic overview Formulae of common ions Writing formulae for ionic compounds Oxidation numbers and the rules for assigning them Oxidation numbers in ions and less obvious cases Constructing and balancing chemical equations Ionic equations and state symbols

Basic Ideas About Atoms

Topic overview Radioactive decay and nuclear equations Behaviour of α, β and γ radiation Half-life and radioactive decay calculations Radiation hazards and the uses of radioisotopes Ionisation energy and its variation between elements Successive ionisation energies and electronic structure Orbitals and electron configurations of elements 1 to 36 Emission and absorption spectra The hydrogen spectrum, E = hf and the convergence limit

Chemical Calculations

Topic overview Relative atomic, isotopic, formula and molecular mass Principles of the mass spectrometer Mass spectra, isotopic abundance and relative atomic mass Empirical and molecular formulae The mole, the Avogadro constant and molar mass Moles, grams and numbers of particles Concentration and solubility Molar volume and gas volume corrections The ideal gas equation Stoichiometry and reacting quantities Acid-base titration calculations Atom economy, percentage yield and percentage error

Bonding

Topic overview Ionic bonding and the formation of ions Covalent bonding and the balance of forces Coordinate bonding Electronegativity and bond polarity The ionic–covalent continuum Intermolecular forces, permanent and temporary dipoles Hydrogen bonding VSEPR and the shapes of simple molecules and ions

Solid Structures

Topic overview Sodium chloride and caesium chloride structures Diamond and graphite Iodine and ice Metallic bonding and the electron sea model Structure, bonding and physical properties

The Periodic Table

Topic overview Arrangement of the elements and the s-, p- and d-blocks Oxidation and reduction as electron transfer Trends across periods and down groups Reactions of Group 2 elements with oxygen, water and steam Reactions of the aqueous cations Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Ba²⁺Flame colours Reactivity of Group 1 and Group 2 metals Thermal stability of the Group 2 carbonates and hydroxides Solubility of the Group 2 hydroxides and sulfates Basic character of the Group 1 and Group 2 oxides and hydroxides Volatility of the halogens and their reactions with metals Oxidising power, displacement reactions and the silver nitrate test Water treatment, salt preparation and gravimetric analysis

Simple Equilibria and Acid-Base Reactions

Topic overview Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium Le Chatelier's principle The equilibrium constant Kc Acids and bases as donors and acceptors of H⁺Strong and weak acids, pH and hydrogen ion concentration Acid-base titrations

Thermochemistry

Topic overview Enthalpy changes of reaction, combustion and formation Hess's law and energy cycles Average bond enthalpies Calculating enthalpy changes from experimental data Laboratory procedures for determining enthalpy changes

Rates of Reaction

Topic overview Collision theory and the conditions that change rate Energy profiles and activation energy The Boltzmann distribution and the effect of temperature Catalysts and how they work Calculating rates from experimental data Methods of following the course of a reaction

The Wider Impact of Chemistry

Topic overview Social, economic and environmental impact of chemical synthesis The production of energy and the choices it forces Green chemistry and sustainability

Organic Compounds

Topic overview Representing organic compounds Naming organic compounds Boiling temperature and solubility of organic compounds Structural isomerism Bond fission, electrophiles, nucleophiles and radicals

Hydrocarbons

Topic overview Alkanes and the sigma-bonded framework Combustion of alkanes and the use of fossil fuels Free radical substitution and the photochlorination of alkanes Alkenes and the reactivity of the C=C bond E–Z isomerism Electrophilic addition of bromine to alkenes Tests for alkenes Markovnikov addition of hydrogen bromide and carbocation stability Catalytic hydrogenation of alkenes Addition polymerisation

Halogenoalkanes

Topic overview Nucleophilic substitution of primary halogenoalkanes Elimination reactions forming alkenes Bond polarity, bond enthalpy and the ease of substitution The silver nitrate test for halogenoalkanes Uses of halogenoalkanes and the regulation of their use CFCs and their effect in the upper atmosphere Heating under reflux

Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids

Topic overview Industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene Fermentation and the distillation of ethanol Biofuels and the issues they raise Classifying alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiary Dehydration of alcohols to alkenes Oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes and carboxylic acids Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones The dichromate(VI) test for alcohols Carboxylic acids and the sodium hydrogencarbonate test Reactions of carboxylic acids with bases, carbonates and hydrogencarbonates Esterification and separation by distillation

Instrumental Analysis

Topic overview Mass spectra and molecular structure Infrared spectroscopy Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy Low resolution proton NMR spectroscopy

Redox and Standard Electrode Potential

Topic overview Redox systems and half-equations in cell diagrams Standard electrode potential and the standard hydrogen electrode Combining electrodes to form electrochemical cells Cell EMF and the feasibility of reactions The hydrogen fuel cell

Redox Reactions

Topic overview Constructing ion/electron half-equations Combining half-equations into a stoichiometric redox equation The reaction of Cu²⁺ with iodide ions Carrying out a redox titration Redox titration calculations

Chemistry of the P-Block

Topic overview Amphoteric behaviour of aluminium and lead The inert pair effect in Groups 3, 4 and 5 Electron-deficient compounds and expanded octets Al₂Cl₆ and donor-acceptor compounds Hexagonal and cubic boron nitride Stability of oxidation states II and IV in Group 4 Carbon dioxide and lead(II) oxide Bonding in the Group 4 chlorides Hydrolysis of the Group 4 chlorides Reactions of aqueous lead(II) ions Chlorine with cold and warm aqueous sodium hydroxide Bleaching and bactericidal action of chlorine and chlorate(I)Sodium halides with concentrated sulfuric acid

Chemistry of the D-Block Transition Metals

Topic overview Oxidation states of the d-block elements Important oxidation states and the colours of aqueous ions Bonding in tetrahedral and octahedral complexes The origin of colour and the splitting of d-orbitals Ligand exchange and change of coordination number Colours and formulae of copper and cobalt complex ions Heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysis Nickel in hydrogenation and iron in the Haber process Vanadium(V) oxide and manganese(IV) oxide as catalysts Reactions of Cr³⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺ and Cu²⁺ with excess aqueous hydroxide

Chemical Kinetics

Topic overview Measuring reaction rate by sampling and quenching The rate equation, order and the rate constant Finding reaction order from experimental results The rate-determining step and reaction mechanism The Arrhenius equation and activation energy

Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions

Topic overview Enthalpy changes of atomisation, lattice and hydration Enthalpy change of solution and the solubility of ionic compounds The Born–Haber cycle Standard enthalpy of formation as an indicator of stability

Entropy and Feasibility of Reactions

Topic overview Entropy as a measure of freedom Entropy of solids, liquids and gases Calculating entropy changes from absolute entropies Gibbs free energy change Feasibility, spontaneity and endothermic processes

Equilibrium Constants

Topic overview Writing Kc and Kp expressions and their units Calculating Kc and the amounts present at equilibrium Kp, partial pressures and mole fractions Temperature and the magnitude of the equilibrium constant

Acid-Base Equilibria

Topic overview The Lowry–Brønsted theory and conjugate pairs Strong and weak acids and the dissociation constant Ka The ionic product of water, Kw pH of strong acids and strong bases pH of weak acids from Ka and pKa Titration curves How buffer solutions work Buffer calculations Buffers in living systems and industry Salt hydrolysis and the choice of indicator

Stereoisomerism

Topic overview Stereoisomerism and structural isomerism Chiral centres and enantiomers Optical activity and plane-polarised light Racemic mixtures

Aromaticity

Topic overview Structure and bonding in benzene Delocalisation and resistance to addition Electrophilic substitution: nitration and halogenation Friedel-Crafts alkylation and the ring's interaction with substituents

Alcohols and Phenols

Topic overview Forming alcohols from halogenoalkanes and carbonyl compounds Alcohols with hydrogen halides, ethanoyl chloride and carboxylic acids Acidity of phenol Reactions of phenol and the iron(III) chloride test

Aldehydes and Ketones

Topic overview Preparing aldehydes and ketones by oxidation of alcohols Distinguishing aldehydes and ketones with Tollens’ reagent and Fehling’s solution Reduction of aldehydes and ketones using NaBH₄ Nucleophilic addition of HCN to aldehydes and ketones Reaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine The triiodomethane (iodoform) test

Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives

Topic overview Relative acidity of carboxylic acids, phenols, alcohols and water Preparing carboxylic acids by oxidation Reduction and decarboxylation of carboxylic acids Acid chlorides and their reactions Esters and their hydrolysis Amides and their hydrolysis Nitriles from carboxylic acids and halogenoalkanes Hydroxynitriles, hydrolysis and reduction of nitriles

Amines

Topic overview Amines from halogenoalkanes and ammonia Amines from the reduction of nitriles Aromatic amines from nitrobenzene Basicity of amines Ethanoylation of primary amines Reaction of primary amines with cold nitric(III) acid Azo coupling, azo dyes and the origin of colour

Amino Acids, Peptides and Proteins

Topic overview α-amino acids and their general formula Zwitterions and amphoteric behaviour Melting temperature, solubility and the isoelectric point Dipeptides, polypeptides and the peptide link Protein structure and the role of proteins

Organic Synthesis and Analysis

Topic overview Planning a multi-step synthesis Choosing between alternative routes Manipulation and separation techniques Purification and melting temperature Addition and condensation polymerisation Polyesters and polyamides High resolution proton NMR Combining spectra to elucidate a structure Interpreting chromatographic data Gas chromatography and HPLC

Specified Practical Work

Topic overview Gravimetric analysis and qualitative analysis of unknown solutions Standard solutions, standardising an acid and preparing a soluble salt Back titration and double titration Determining enthalpy changes by calorimetry Following a rate by gas collection, the iodine clock and reaction order Electrochemical cells, redox titration and the estimation of copper Determining an equilibrium constant and following a titration with a pH probe Hydrolysis of 1-bromobutane and the preparation of an ester Organic synthesis, purification and identification

Practical Skills and Techniques

Topic overview Choosing apparatus and recording measurements Volumetric technique with pipette, burette and volumetric flask Titration procedure and the choice of indicator Heating, heating under reflux and distillation Filtration, purification and qualitative testing Melting temperature, chromatography and electrochemical cells Variables, errors and risk in evaluating a method

Mathematical Skills in Chemistry

Topic overview Standard form, units and significant figures Ratios, fractions and percentages Changing the subject and substituting values Logarithms, pH and pKa Exponentials, the Arrhenius equation and rate Graphs, gradients and intercepts Tangents and rates of change Area under a curve Uncertainty and combining errors The gas equation and equilibrium expressions

Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids

11 subtopics
33 things to know
Components 1 and 2

What Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids covers

Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids is examined in Components 1 and 2, since the Core Ideas are examined on both written papers, and drawn on again in Component 3. It covers industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene, fermentation and the distillation of ethanol, biofuels and the issues they raise, Classifying alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiary, dehydration of alcohols to alkenes, oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes and carboxylic acids, oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones, the dichromate(VI) test for alcohols, carboxylic acids and the sodium hydrogencarbonate test, reactions of carboxylic acids with bases, carbonates and hydrogencarbonates and esterification and separation by distillation.

Where it is assessed

Components 1 and 2

the Core Ideas, Principles and Concepts, which are examined on both written papers and drawn on again in Component 3.

Check the Eduqas specification ↗

The 11 subtopics

Each one has its own page.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

Your recallNot started

Key term

What organism and what temperature does fermentation use, and why is neither a much higher nor a much lower temperature chosen?

Key term

Describe the apparatus used for the simple distillation that separates the ester from the reaction mixture.

Key term

Write the equation for the industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene.

Key term

What is a biofuel?

Key term

Name the functional group present in an alcohol.

Key term

What is meant by the dehydration of an alcohol?

Key term

Name the oxidising agent normally used to oxidise an alcohol in the laboratory.

Key term

Name the class of product formed when a secondary alcohol is oxidised.

Key term

State the reagent used in the dichromate(VI) test on an alcohol.

Key term

Give the formula of the carboxyl functional group.

Key term

Name the two products formed when a carboxylic acid reacts with an alkali.

Key term

State the catalyst used in the direct hydration of ethene.

Key term

Write the equation for the fermentation of glucose.

Key term

Name the two most widely used liquid biofuels.

Key term

Give the general formula of a saturated alcohol with one hydroxyl group.

Key term

Write the equation for the dehydration of ethanol.

Key term

What symbol is used to represent the oxidising agent in an organic equation?

Key term

Write the equation for the oxidation of propan-2-ol.

Key term

Describe the test and the observation for a primary or secondary alcohol.

Key term

Write the equation for the partial dissociation of ethanoic acid in water.

Key term

Write the equation for the reaction of ethanoic acid with sodium hydroxide.

Key term

Name the two classes of organic compound that react together to form an ester.

Key term

State the temperature and pressure used in the direct hydration of ethene.

Key term

Name the organism used in fermentation and the type of substance within it that catalyses the reaction.

Evaluation

Explain the argument that bioethanol is a carbon neutral fuel.

Key term

Define a primary alcohol.

Key term

State the reagent and conditions for the dehydration of ethanol using an acid.

Key term

Name the two classes of product that can be obtained by oxidising a primary alcohol.

Key term

Name the product formed when propan-2-ol is oxidised.

Key term

Give the reason for the colour change in the dichromate(VI) test for an alcohol

Key term

Explain why carboxylic acids are classed as weak acids.

Key term

Name the salt formed when ethanoic acid reacts with sodium hydroxide.

Key term

Write the equation for the reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol.

Take Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids further

The same content, four other ways.

Questions from this topic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
Write the equation for the industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene.
Model answer
CH₂=CH₂(g) + H₂O(g) ⇌ CH₃CH₂OH(g).
2
Name the reaction by which ethene is converted into ethanol industrially.
Model answer
It is the direct hydration of ethene, in which water is added across the double bond.
3
State the catalyst used in the direct hydration of ethene.
Model answer
Concentrated phosphoric(V) acid absorbed onto a solid silica support is used.
4
State the temperature and pressure used in the direct hydration of ethene.
Model answer
A temperature of about 300 °C and a pressure of about 60 to 70 atmospheres are used.
5
The forward reaction is exothermic and reduces the number of moles of gas. Explain why a high pressure is chosen.
Model answer
There are two moles of gas on the left and one on the right, so raising the pressure shifts the equilibrium towards ethanol and raises the yield.
6
Explain why a temperature as high as 300 °C is used even though the forward reaction is exothermic.
Model answer
A lower temperature would give a better equilibrium yield but the reaction would be far too slow, so the temperature chosen is a compromise with the rate.

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Formulae and Equations

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An is formed.

alkenealcoholaldehyde

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Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids revision questions

What does Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids cover in Eduqas A-Level Chemistry?: 11 subtopics: industrial preparation of ethanol from ethene, fermentation and the distillation of ethanol, biofuels and the issues they raise, classifying alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiary, dehydration of alcohols to alkenes, oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes and carboxylic acids, oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones, the dichromate(vi) test for alcohols, carboxylic acids and the sodium hydrogencarbonate test, reactions of carboxylic acids with bases, carbonates and hydrogencarbonates and esterification and separation by distillation. Each one has its own page with questions and model answers.
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