Key term
Eduqas A-Level Chemistry A410QS
Formulae and Equations
Basic Ideas About Atoms
Topic overviewRadioactive decay and nuclear equationsBehaviour of α, β and γ radiationHalf-life and radioactive decay calculationsRadiation hazards and the uses of radioisotopesIonisation energy and its variation between elementsSuccessive ionisation energies and electronic structureOrbitals and electron configurations of elements 1 to 36Emission and absorption spectraThe hydrogen spectrum, E = hf and the convergence limit
Chemical Calculations
Topic overviewRelative atomic, isotopic, formula and molecular massPrinciples of the mass spectrometerMass spectra, isotopic abundance and relative atomic massEmpirical and molecular formulaeThe mole, the Avogadro constant and molar massMoles, grams and numbers of particlesConcentration and solubilityMolar volume and gas volume correctionsThe ideal gas equationStoichiometry and reacting quantitiesAcid-base titration calculationsAtom economy, percentage yield and percentage error
Bonding
Solid Structures
The Periodic Table
Topic overviewArrangement of the elements and the s-, p- and d-blocksOxidation and reduction as electron transferTrends across periods and down groupsReactions of Group 2 elements with oxygen, water and steamReactions of the aqueous cations Mg²⁺, Ca²⁺ and Ba²⁺Flame coloursReactivity of Group 1 and Group 2 metalsThermal stability of the Group 2 carbonates and hydroxidesSolubility of the Group 2 hydroxides and sulfatesBasic character of the Group 1 and Group 2 oxides and hydroxidesVolatility of the halogens and their reactions with metalsOxidising power, displacement reactions and the silver nitrate testWater treatment, salt preparation and gravimetric analysis
Simple Equilibria and Acid-Base Reactions
Thermochemistry
Rates of Reaction
The Wider Impact of Chemistry
Organic Compounds
Hydrocarbons
Topic overviewAlkanes and the sigma-bonded frameworkCombustion of alkanes and the use of fossil fuelsFree radical substitution and the photochlorination of alkanesAlkenes and the reactivity of the C=C bondE–Z isomerismElectrophilic addition of bromine to alkenesTests for alkenesMarkovnikov addition of hydrogen bromide and carbocation stabilityCatalytic hydrogenation of alkenesAddition polymerisation
Halogenoalkanes
Topic overviewNucleophilic substitution of primary halogenoalkanesElimination reactions forming alkenesBond polarity, bond enthalpy and the ease of substitutionThe silver nitrate test for halogenoalkanesUses of halogenoalkanes and the regulation of their useCFCs and their effect in the upper atmosphereHeating under reflux
Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids
Topic overviewIndustrial preparation of ethanol from etheneFermentation and the distillation of ethanolBiofuels and the issues they raiseClassifying alcohols as primary, secondary and tertiaryDehydration of alcohols to alkenesOxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes and carboxylic acidsOxidation of secondary alcohols to ketonesThe dichromate(VI) test for alcoholsCarboxylic acids and the sodium hydrogencarbonate testReactions of carboxylic acids with bases, carbonates and hydrogencarbonatesEsterification and separation by distillation
Instrumental Analysis
Redox and Standard Electrode Potential
Redox Reactions
Chemistry of the P-Block
Topic overviewAmphoteric behaviour of aluminium and leadThe inert pair effect in Groups 3, 4 and 5Electron-deficient compounds and expanded octetsAl₂Cl₆ and donor-acceptor compoundsHexagonal and cubic boron nitrideStability of oxidation states II and IV in Group 4Carbon dioxide and lead(II) oxideBonding in the Group 4 chloridesHydrolysis of the Group 4 chloridesReactions of aqueous lead(II) ionsChlorine with cold and warm aqueous sodium hydroxideBleaching and bactericidal action of chlorine and chlorate(I)Sodium halides with concentrated sulfuric acid
Chemistry of the D-Block Transition Metals
Topic overviewOxidation states of the d-block elementsImportant oxidation states and the colours of aqueous ionsBonding in tetrahedral and octahedral complexesThe origin of colour and the splitting of d-orbitalsLigand exchange and change of coordination numberColours and formulae of copper and cobalt complex ionsHeterogeneous and homogeneous catalysisNickel in hydrogenation and iron in the Haber processVanadium(V) oxide and manganese(IV) oxide as catalystsReactions of Cr³⁺, Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺ and Cu²⁺ with excess aqueous hydroxide
Chemical Kinetics
Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions
Entropy and Feasibility of Reactions
Equilibrium Constants
Acid-Base Equilibria
Topic overviewThe Lowry–Brønsted theory and conjugate pairsStrong and weak acids and the dissociation constant KaThe ionic product of water, KwpH of strong acids and strong basespH of weak acids from Ka and pKaTitration curvesHow buffer solutions workBuffer calculationsBuffers in living systems and industrySalt hydrolysis and the choice of indicator
Stereoisomerism
Aromaticity
Alcohols and Phenols
Aldehydes and Ketones
Topic overviewPreparing aldehydes and ketones by oxidation of alcoholsDistinguishing aldehydes and ketones with Tollens’ reagent and Fehling’s solutionReduction of aldehydes and ketones using NaBH₄Nucleophilic addition of HCN to aldehydes and ketonesReaction with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazineThe triiodomethane (iodoform) test
Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives
Topic overviewRelative acidity of carboxylic acids, phenols, alcohols and waterPreparing carboxylic acids by oxidationReduction and decarboxylation of carboxylic acidsAcid chlorides and their reactionsEsters and their hydrolysisAmides and their hydrolysisNitriles from carboxylic acids and halogenoalkanesHydroxynitriles, hydrolysis and reduction of nitriles
Amines
Amino Acids, Peptides and Proteins
Organic Synthesis and Analysis
Topic overviewPlanning a multi-step synthesisChoosing between alternative routesManipulation and separation techniquesPurification and melting temperatureAddition and condensation polymerisationPolyesters and polyamidesHigh resolution proton NMRCombining spectra to elucidate a structureInterpreting chromatographic dataGas chromatography and HPLC
Specified Practical Work
Topic overviewGravimetric analysis and qualitative analysis of unknown solutionsStandard solutions, standardising an acid and preparing a soluble saltBack titration and double titrationDetermining enthalpy changes by calorimetryFollowing a rate by gas collection, the iodine clock and reaction orderElectrochemical cells, redox titration and the estimation of copperDetermining an equilibrium constant and following a titration with a pH probeHydrolysis of 1-bromobutane and the preparation of an esterOrganic synthesis, purification and identification
Practical Skills and Techniques
Topic overviewChoosing apparatus and recording measurementsVolumetric technique with pipette, burette and volumetric flaskTitration procedure and the choice of indicatorHeating, heating under reflux and distillationFiltration, purification and qualitative testingMelting temperature, chromatography and electrochemical cellsVariables, errors and risk in evaluating a method
Mathematical Skills in Chemistry
Topic overviewStandard form, units and significant figuresRatios, fractions and percentagesChanging the subject and substituting valuesLogarithms, pH and pKaExponentials, the Arrhenius equation and rateGraphs, gradients and interceptsTangents and rates of changeArea under a curveUncertainty and combining errorsThe gas equation and equilibrium expressions
Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions
- 4 subtopics
- 12 things to know
- Component 1
What Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions covers
Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions is examined in Component 1, Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, and drawn on again in Component 3. It covers enthalpy changes of atomisation, lattice and hydration, enthalpy change of solution and the solubility of ionic compounds, the Born–Haber cycle and standard enthalpy of formation as an indicator of stability.
Where it is assessed
Component 1
Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, and drawn on again in Component 3.
Check the Eduqas specification ↗The 4 subtopics
Each one has its own page.
- Enthalpy changes of atomisation, lattice and hydrationStandard enthalpy change of atomisation, why an enthalpy change of atomisation is always endothermic and lattice formation enthalpy of an ionic compound.Open →
- Enthalpy change of solution and the solubility of ionic compoundsRecall questions on the two processes that occur when an ionic solid dissolves, the cycle relating lattice enthalpy, hydration enthalpies and enthalpy of solution, worked calculations for named chlorides, and why a salt with an endothermic enthalpy of solution can still dissolve readily.Open →
- The Born–Haber cycleRecall questions on the steps of the cycle in order, the definitions of each term as it appears in it, why the ionisation and atomisation steps are endothermic, worked determinations of a lattice enthalpy, and why the halogen terms must be doubled for a Group 2 halide.Open →
- Standard enthalpy of formation as an indicator of stabilityRecall questions on what a negative and a positive standard enthalpy of formation each indicate, comparing the stability of two compounds from their values, named compounds with positive values, and why enthalpy of formation alone does not settle whether a compound will decompose.Open →
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
Your recallNot started
Process
What two processes occur when an ionic solid dissolves, and what are the enthalpy changes of solution of sodium and potassium chloride?
Key term
Which quantity is normally obtained from a Born–Haber cycle?
Key term
Name a simple oxide of nitrogen with a positive standard enthalpy of formation, and give the approximate value.
Key term
Explain why an enthalpy change of atomisation is always endothermic.
Process
Describe the two processes that take place when an ionic solid dissolves in water.
Key term
Which law makes a Born–Haber cycle valid?
Key term
Name a hydrocarbon with a positive standard enthalpy of formation, and give the approximate value.
Key term
Write the equation that represents the standard enthalpy change of atomisation of chlorine.
Key term
Explain why a compound with a strongly endothermic enthalpy change of solution is likely to be insoluble.
Process
List the steps that convert the elements into gaseous ions in a Born–Haber cycle for sodium chloride.
Key term
Explain why a compound with a very exothermic enthalpy of formation is difficult to break down into its elements.
Take Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions further
The same content, four other ways.
Questions from this topic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
Define the standard enthalpy change of atomisation.
Model answer
It is the enthalpy change when one mole of gaseous atoms is formed from an element in its standard state.
- 2
Explain why an enthalpy change of atomisation is always endothermic.
Model answer
Energy has to be supplied to break the bonds or overcome the attractions holding the atoms together in the element.
- 3
Write the equation that represents the standard enthalpy change of atomisation of chlorine.
Model answer
½Cl₂(g) → Cl(g).
- 4
Write the equation that represents the standard enthalpy change of atomisation of sodium.
Model answer
Na(s) → Na(g).
- 5
Define the lattice formation enthalpy of an ionic compound.
Model answer
It is the enthalpy change when one mole of the ionic solid is formed from its constituent gaseous ions.
- 6
Explain why a lattice formation enthalpy is always exothermic.
Model answer
Oppositely charged ions come together from infinite separation and strong electrostatic attractions are formed, which releases energy.
What is inside Levo
Six ways to work the same material.
Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions revision questions
- What does Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions cover in Eduqas A-Level Chemistry?
- 4 subtopics: enthalpy changes of atomisation, lattice and hydration, enthalpy change of solution and the solubility of ionic compounds, the born–haber cycle and standard enthalpy of formation as an indicator of stability. Each one has its own page with questions and model answers.
- How is Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions organised?
- By the Eduqas A410QS specification, subtopic by subtopic, so it matches the order you are taught it in.
Every question in Enthalpy Changes for Solids and Solutions, on a schedule.
Attempt a question from memory, write the correct version, then attempt it again. Levo records the jump between your first attempt and your last, and brings each question back on the day you are due to forget it.
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