What are demand characteristics in psychological research?

Cues in a research situation that convey to participants the expected behaviour or the hypothesis being tested, potentially causing them to alter their natural responses.

How might demand characteristics affect the way participants behave during a study?

Participants may pick up on cues about what the researcher expects and change their natural responses accordingly, rather than behaving as they normally would.

Define investigator effects.

Any influences that the researcher unintentionally exerts on the outcome of a study through their behaviour, appearance, expectations, or the way they interact with participants.

What is the 'please-u' effect?

When participants change their behaviour to help the researcher by producing results they believe are desired.

What is the 'screw-u' effect in research?

When participants deliberately behave in ways intended to sabotage or undermine the research findings.

AQA A-Level Psychology 7182

Social Influence

Topic overview Types of conformity and explanations for conformity Conformity to social roles: Zimbardo's prison study Explanations for obedience Resistance to social influence Minority influence Social influence and social change

Memory

Topic overview The multi-store model of memory Types of long-term memory The working memory model Explanations for forgetting Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Attachment

Topic overview Caregiver-infant interactions: reciprocity and interactional synchrony Schaffer's stages of attachment Multiple attachments and the role of the father Animal studies of attachment Explanations of attachment Ainsworth's Strange Situation and types of attachment Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation and effects of institutionalisation Influence of early attachment on relationships Cultural variations in attachment

Approaches in Psychology

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Biopsychology

Topic overview Divisions of the nervous system Structure and function of neurons and synaptic transmission The endocrine system The fight or flight response Ways of studying the brain Localisation of function and hemispheric lateralisation Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma Biological rhythms: circadian, infradian and ultradian

Clinical Psychology and Mental Health

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Research Methods

Topic overview Experimental method Observational techniques Self-report techniques Correlations Content analysis Case studies

Scientific Processes

Topic overview Aims and hypotheses Sampling Pilot studies Experimental designs Observational design Questionnaire construction and design of interviews Variables Control Demand characteristics and investigator effects Ethics Peer review Implications of psychological research for the economy Reliability Validity Features of science Reporting psychological investigations

Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Topic overview Quantitative and qualitative data; the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques Primary and secondary data, including meta-analysis Descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion Presentation and display of quantitative data: graphs, tables, scattergrams, bar charts Distributions: normal and skewed distributions Introduction to statistical testing; the sign test

Data Handling and Analysis

Topic overview Primary and secondary data Descriptive statistics Presentation and display of quantitative data Distributions Analysis and interpretation of correlation Levels of measurement Coding in content analysis

Inferential Testing

Topic overview The sign test Probability and significance Factors affecting the choice of statistical test

Issues and Debates in Psychology

Topic overview Gender and culture in Psychology Free will and determinism The nature-nurture debate Holism and reductionism Idiographic and nomothetic approaches Ethical implications of research and social sensitivity

RelationshipsOption 1

Topic overview Factors affecting attraction in romantic relationships Evolutionary explanations for partner preferences Theories of romantic relationships Online relationships Parasocial relationships

GenderOption 1

Topic overview Sex, gender, sex-role stereotypes and androgyny Chromosomes and hormones in biological sex Cognitive explanations of gender development Psychodynamic explanation of gender development Social learning theory as applied to gender development Gender incongruence

Cognition and DevelopmentOption 1

Topic overview Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development Piaget's theory of cognitive development Baillargeon's explanation of early infant abilities The development of social cognition

SchizophreniaOption 2

Topic overview Symptoms of schizophrenia and issues in diagnosis Biological explanations for schizophrenia Psychological explanations for schizophrenia Drug therapy for schizophrenia Psychological therapies for schizophrenia The interactionist approach to schizophrenia

Eating BehaviourOption 2

Topic overview Explanations for food preferences Neural and hormonal mechanisms in eating behaviour Biological explanations for anorexia nervosa Psychological explanations for anorexia nervosa Biological explanations for obesity Psychological explanations for obesity

StressOption 2

Topic overview The physiology of stress The role of stress in illness Sources of stress Measuring stress Individual differences in stress Managing and coping with stress

AggressionOption 3

Topic overview Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression Genetic factors in aggression Ethological and evolutionary explanations of aggression Social psychological explanations of human aggression Institutional aggression in prisons Media influences on aggression

Forensic PsychologyOption 3

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AddictionOption 3

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Explanations for Nicotine AddictionOption 3

Topic overview Brain neurochemistry, including the role of dopamine Learning theory as applied to nicotine addiction, including reference to cue reactivity

Explanations for Gambling AddictionOption 3

Topic overview Learning theory as applied to gambling, including reference to partial and variable reinforcement Cognitive theory as applied to gambling, including reference to cognitive bias

Scientific Processes

Demand characteristics and investigator effects

3 things to know
Paper 2

Overview

The cues that reveal to participants what is expected, the ways a researcher can unintentionally shape results, and why both threaten internal validity.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

Your recallNot started

Key term

What are the cues that reveal to participants what is expected?

Key term

How can a researcher unintentionally shape the results obtained?

Evaluation

Why do participant cues and researcher influence threaten internal validity?

Questions from this subtopic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
What are demand characteristics in psychological research?
Model answer
Cues in a research situation that convey to participants the expected behaviour or the hypothesis being tested, potentially causing them to alter their natural responses.
2
How might demand characteristics affect the way participants behave during a study?
Model answer
Participants may pick up on cues about what the researcher expects and change their natural responses accordingly, rather than behaving as they normally would.
3
Define investigator effects.
Model answer
Any influences that the researcher unintentionally exerts on the outcome of a study through their behaviour, appearance, expectations, or the way they interact with participants.
4
What is the 'please-u' effect?
Model answer
When participants change their behaviour to help the researcher by producing results they believe are desired.
5
A participant guesses the hypothesis and tries to confirm it to be helpful. What is this called?
Model answer
The 'please-u' effect.
6
What is the 'screw-u' effect in research?
Model answer
When participants deliberately behave in ways intended to sabotage or undermine the research findings.

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Approaches in Psychology

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