How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?

Hydrogencarbonate ions in the plasma carry about 70% of carbon dioxide. Haemoglobin carries about 23% as carbaminohaemoglobin, and about 7% is dissolved in plasma.

Why does a rise in carbon dioxide lower blood pH?

Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid releases hydrogen ions, which lower blood pH.

Why does lactic acid build up during high-intensity exercise?

Pyruvate is converted to lactic acid when anaerobic glycolysis supplies energy faster than oxygen can be delivered. Lactic acid is then produced faster than it can be removed.

CCEA A-Level Sports Science and the Active Leisure Industry 7210

Components of Fitness

Topic overview Aerobic, anaerobic and specific endurance General strength, specific strength and muscular endurance Speed, power and reaction time Flexibility and body composition Balance, agility and co-ordination

Training Methods

Topic overview Principles of training: SPORT and FITT Goal setting and SMARTER targets for training Periodisation and training cycles The ATP-PC, lactic acid and aerobic energy systems Continuous, fartlek, interval and speed training Circuit, resistance, SAQ, core stability and stretching

Fitness Testing

Topic overview Purpose, protocol, validity and reliability of tests Choosing tests: maximal, sub-maximal and technology Tests of aerobic endurance Tests of strength, muscular endurance and power Speed, agility, flexibility, balance, co-ordination and reaction tests Supervising, recording and evaluating test results

Fitness Programmes and Exercise Sessions

Topic overview Assessing a client and designing a programme Heart rate training zones and the Karvonen method Resistance loads, work to recovery ratios and the Borg scale Planning and leading circuits, exercise to music and spinning Instructing, motivating and observing participants Evaluating a session or programme

Safety and Risk Assessment in Training

Topic overview Safe practice during fitness tests and training Training equipment, clothing and risk assessment First aid, medical emergencies and concussion Common sports injuries and their treatment

The Active Leisure Industry

Topic overview Leisure, leisure time and the leisure industry The five subsectors of active leisure Public funding of active leisure Commercial funding of active leisure

Lifestyle and Health

Topic overview Health, fitness and health-related exercise Benefits of an active lifestyle Legal and illegal substances Weight, age and the effects of ageing Preventing hypokinetic disease Stress, work-life balance and life coaches Lifestyle analysis and research methods

Nutrition for Health and Exercise

Topic overview Nutrients, their sources and functions A balanced diet and hydration Energy balance, BMI and body composition Diet, health and food handling Nutrition strategies for weight change and different sports

Enhancing Fitness

Topic overview Improving aerobic and anaerobic endurance Improving muscular endurance, strength and power Improving speed, agility and reaction time Improving flexibility and body composition Improving balance, co-ordination and skill fitness

Safety in the Active Leisure Industry

Topic overview Technique, progression, rest and recovery PAR-Q, warm-up, cool-down and contraindicated exercises Equipment, lifting, clothing, footwear and facilities Rules, regulations and risk assessment in leisure settings

Barriers to Participation

Topic overview Cost, time, location, disability and ability as barriers Gender, ethnicity, age and family as barriers Stereotyping and equal opportunity Reducing barriers and widening participation

Health of the Nation

Topic overview Lifestyle factors and life expectancy The impact of lifestyle disease on society Exercise referral, 5 A Day, smoking bans and healthy schools Alcohol, weight management and current initiatives Comparing health across European countries

Components of the Leisure Industry

Topic overview Sport and recreation Entertainment, the arts and heritage Hospitality and tourism Sectors, growth and employment in the leisure industry

Planning an Active Leisure Event

Topic overview Choosing an active leisure event Event roles and responsibilities Aims, SMARTER targets and customers Marketing an event Event finance and physical resources Target setting, timescales and organisation Risk assessment and contingency planning

Teamwork and Running an Event

Topic overview Fulfilling team roles and solving problems Communication, meetings and minutes Team building and team interaction Carrying out tasks on the day of an event

Evaluating an Active Leisure Event

Topic overview Gathering feedback on an event Judging an event against its aims and targets Evaluating individual and team performance Self-evaluation and recommendations

The Respiratory System

Topic overview Structure of the airways and lungs Mechanics of inspiration and expiration Lung volumes and capacities Gaseous exchange at the alveoli and muscles Altitude training for endurance athletes

The Cardiovascular System

Topic overview Haemoglobin, myoglobin and oxygen transport Blood gases, lactic acid and pH in exercise Structure of the heart and its conduction system Blood vessels, blood pressure and vascular control Stroke volume, cardiac output and the trained heart The cardiac cycle and control of heart rate

The Skeletal System

Topic overview Structure and functions of the skeleton Synovial joint structure and types Flexion, extension, abduction and adduction Joint actions of the ankle, forearm and shoulder girdle

The Muscular System

Topic overview Muscle tissue and muscle roles Major muscles used in sporting movements Muscle fibre types and sporting activity Motor units, summation and the all-or-none law Concentric, eccentric and isometric contraction

Effects of Exercise on Body Systems

Topic overview Short-term cardiovascular responses to exercise Long-term cardiovascular adaptations to training Respiratory responses and adaptations Skeletal and muscular responses and adaptations

Ethics in Sports Performance

Topic overview Legal and illegal drugs in sport Implications of drug taking for athletes and sport Technology in sports clothing and equipment Anti-doping strategies of governing bodies

Skill Acquisition

Topic overview Skill, ability and learning Cognitive, perceptual, motor and psychomotor skills Open, closed, self-paced and externally paced skills Discrete, serial, continuous, gross and fine skills

Learning and Performance

Topic overview Fitts and Posner's stages of learning Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Transfer of learning Command, reciprocal, discovery and problem-solving teaching styles Learning plateaus and performance curves

The Cardiovascular System

Blood gases, lactic acid and pH in exercise

3 things to know
A2 2

Overview

Venous and arterial oxygen in exercise, carbon dioxide transport, blood pH and lactic acid, resting lactate and OBLA, buffering, chemoreceptors and a lactate calculation.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

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Key term

How does exercise change the oxygen content of venous blood?

Key term

How does exercise affect the oxygen content of arterial blood in a healthy person?

Key term

How does exercise change the carbon dioxide level of the blood?

Questions from this subtopic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
How does exercise change the oxygen content of venous blood?
Model answer
Venous blood leaving working muscles carries much less oxygen during exercise. The muscles extract more oxygen to meet their higher demand.
2
How does exercise affect the oxygen content of arterial blood in a healthy person?
Model answer
Arterial blood usually stays almost fully saturated with oxygen during exercise. Faster, deeper breathing keeps pace with the extra oxygen used.
3
How does exercise change the carbon dioxide level of the blood?
Model answer
The working muscles produce more carbon dioxide from aerobic respiration. The partial pressure of CO₂ in venous blood rises.
4
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood?
Model answer
Hydrogencarbonate ions in the plasma carry about 70% of carbon dioxide. Haemoglobin carries about 23% as carbaminohaemoglobin, and about 7% is dissolved in plasma.
5
Why does a rise in carbon dioxide lower blood pH?
Model answer
Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid releases hydrogen ions, which lower blood pH.
6
Why does lactic acid build up during high-intensity exercise?
Model answer
Pyruvate is converted to lactic acid when anaerobic glycolysis supplies energy faster than oxygen can be delivered. Lactic acid is then produced faster than it can be removed.

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Components of Fitness

Training Methods

Fitness Testing

Fitness Programmes and Exercise Sessions

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AThe target heart rate is about 168 bpm.

BMaximum heart rate is 220 − 18 = 202 bpm.

CThe working is 0.75 × (202 − 65) + 65 = 167.75 bpm.

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