Key term
Edexcel A-Level History 9HI0
The Crusades, c1095–1204Paper 1
Topic overviewReligious motives for the crusadesPolitical motives for the crusadesThe knights and the crusadesThe First CrusadeLouis VII, Conrad III and the Second CrusadeThe troubled leadership of the Third CrusadeGeography and economy of OutremerDefence of the crusader statesThe government of the crusader statesMuslim political and religious divisionsThe growth of Muslim power, 1144–69The power of Saladin, 1169–92Innocent III's plans for the Fourth CrusadeThe size and leadership of the crusading forcesVenice and the Doge Enrico DandoloPrince Alexius and the sack of Constantinople
England, 1509–1603: Authority, Nation and ReligionPaper 1
Topic overviewThe Tudor monarchsThe changing role of parliamentThe principal servants of the crownTudor monarchs and religious changeCatholicism and its survivalProtestantism and puritanismTudor control of the countryThe state and the poorResistance to Tudor rulePatterns of domestic and foreign tradeThe changing structure of societyCultural changeThreats to national security from Spain and IrelandFaction at court and the succession issueConflicts with parliament and the session of 1601Harvest failures and social distress in the 1590s
Britain, 1625–1701: Conflict, Revolution and SettlementPaper 1
Topic overviewThe failure of monarchical government, 1625–46Republican rule, 1649–60From restoration to revolution, 1660–88The Church of EnglandThe growth of religious nonconformityThe Catholic questionPopulation growth, 1625-1701The changing structure of societyA ferment of ideasAgriculture and farming changeChanging domestic trade patternsThe impact of imperial expansionRevolutionary ideals and constitutional monarchyThe Toleration Act 1689 and the end of Anglican supremacyThe Triennial Act 1694 and parliamentary powerWilliam III's wars and the financial revolution
Britain, c1785–c1870: Democracy, Protest and ReformPaper 1
Topic overviewThe unreformed parliament and its critics, c1785–1820Pressure for change and reform, 1820–52Further parliamentary reform, 1852–70The impact of industrialisationWorking conditions in factories, mines and foundriesIndustrialisation, protest and reformUnions and their opponents, c1785–1834New model unionism 1835–70The growth of cooperative activitiesThe old Poor Law and pressure for changeThe Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 and its effectsChanging attitudes towards the poor, 1834-70Humanitarian campaigns and the influence of religionEconomic and financial factors in abolitionClarkson, Wilberforce and EquianoThe changing political climate
Russia, 1917–91: From Lenin to YeltsinPaper 1
Topic overviewEstablishing Communist Party control, 1917–24Stalin in power, 1928–53Government, 1953–85Towards a command economy, 1917–28Industry and agriculture in the Stalin eraChanges in industry and agriculture, 1953-85Media, propaganda and religionThe secret policeThe state and cultural changeSocial securityWomen and the familyEducation and young peopleEconomic weakness and the failure of reformGorbachev's failure to reform party and governmentThe nationalist resurgence of the late 1980sGorbachev, Yeltsin and the collapse of the USSR
In Search of the American Dream: The USA, c1917–96Paper 1
Topic overviewA changing presidencyInfluences on the political landscapeThe impact of war on domestic politicsBlack American civil rights, c1917–55Black American civil rights, c1955–80The search for minority rights, 1960–80The changing position of women, 1917–80The impact of immigration, 1917-80Popular culture and the news mediaEconomic influences on American lifeChanging living standardsLeisure and travelReagan’s economic policiesThe extent to which big government was reducedThe nature and extent of social changeThe revitalisation of the presidency and US politics
Germany and West Germany, 1918–89Paper 1
Topic overviewCreation and collapse of the Weimar Republic, 1918–33Nazi dictatorship, 1933–45Return to democratic government, 1945–89Opposition to government, 1918–89Controlling the people, 1918–89Popular support, 1919–89Reacting to economic challenges, 1918–32Controlling the economy, 1933–45Creating a social market economy, 1945–89Attitudes towards women, 1918–89Education and cultural developments, 1918–89The position of ethnic minorities, 1918–89German history on Nazi foreign policyHitler's ideas and Nazi foreign policyThe German invasion of Poland in 1939The contribution of other nations to the outbreak of war
Britain Transformed, 1918–97Paper 1
Topic overviewA changing political landscapeEconomic challenges and responses, 1918-79Change and challenge in the workplaceProviding social welfarePublic health and the National Health ServiceEducation and widening opportunitiesClass and social valuesThe changing role and status of womenRace and immigrationChanging living standardsPopular culture and entertainmentLeisure and travelThatcher’s economic policiesRolling back state intervention and the public sectorPolitical and social division within BritainThatcherism on politics and party development
Anglo-Saxon England and the Anglo-Norman Kingdom, c1053–1106Paper 2
Topic overviewMonarchy and governmentThe economy of EnglandThe house of GodwinEarly threats to Harold’s throneWilliam of Normandy’s invasionDealing with opposition to the NormansWales and ScotlandThe founding of a military stateCentral and local governmentThe end of the English aristocracyChanges in towns and villagesThe English churchWilliam of Normandy’s decision to invade England in 1066Problems in Normandy, 1066–87William Rufus and Robert CurthoseHenry I and the Anglo-Norman Kingdom restored, 1100-06
England and the Angevin Empire in the Reign of Henry II, 1154–89Paper 2
Topic overviewEngland and the Angevin Empire in 1154Henry II and the nobilityWales, Scotland and IrelandThe Angevin lands in FranceCentral institutionsFinancial reformsLegal reformsThe changing nature of kingshipHenry’s problems with the churchBecket and the king, 1162–64The failure to compromise, 1169–70The settlements between king and church, 1172–74Power and family rivalriesCauses of the Great Rebellion of 1173–74The defeat of the Great RebellionPhilip Augustus and the collapse of Henry's power, 1180-89
Luther and the German Reformation, c1515–55Paper 2
Topic overviewThe Holy Roman EmpireThe state of the German economyThe German Catholic ChurchThe papacy and GermanyThe influences on Luther’s viewsThe Ninety-Five Theses 1517The shaping of Luther’s beliefsLuther’s excommunication 1520The Diet of Worms and its aftermathLuther’s attitude to religious and political radicalismLutheran beliefs and their influenceLuther’s declining influence, 1530–46The failure of Lutheran-Catholic negotiationsThe role of the German princesCharles V and LutheranismThe papacy and Lutheranism
The Dutch Revolt, c1563–1609Paper 2
Topic overviewThe Habsburg NetherlandsThe situation c1563Opposition of the Dutch grandeesThe impact of CalvinismAlva’s ruleOrange’s failureThe role of the Sea BeggarsOrange’s triumphThe failure of Requesens, 1573–76Reasons for the success of Parma, 1577-84Foreign intervention in the NetherlandsThe growing independence of the northern provincesMaurice of NassauReasons for Spanish failuresThe growing power of the United ProvincesThe declining power of Spain in the Netherlands
France in Revolution, 1774–99Paper 2
Topic overviewThe ancien régime and its challenges in 1774Problems facing France in the 1780sThe failings of Louis XVI and his ministersThe onset of revolution 1789Attempts to create a constitution, 1789–91The political environment, 1789–93Breakdown of relations with the king, 1791–92The revolution radicalised, 1792–93Preconditions for ‘terror’Organising the TerrorThe Great Terror 1794The coup of ThermidorProblems facing the DirectoryThe work of the DirectoryDealing with internal and external threatsThe coup de Brumaire 1799
Russia in Revolution, 1894–1924Paper 2
Topic overviewThe nature of autocratic ruleOpposition to TsarismThe 1905 RevolutionNicholas II’s responseChange and continuity in governmentRepression and reform, 1906–14The impact of the First World WarThe February RevolutionThe nature of dual powerOpposition to the Provisional governmentThe second Provisional government, July–OctoberThe October RevolutionConsolidating Bolshevik powerBolshevik economic policiesDefeat of domestic enemiesForeign intervention in Russia
The Unification of Italy, c1830–70Paper 2
Topic overviewChallenges to the restored order, 1830–1847Nationalist influences, 1830–47Revolutions of 1848–49Reasons for the failure of the revolutionsLegacy of the 1848–49 revolutionsPolitical developments in PiedmontEconomic developments in PiedmontDevelopments in diplomacyCauses of the Second Italian War of IndependenceImpact of war with Austria, 1859–60Garibaldi’s takeover of the south in 1860The north and south unite, 1860–61Obstacles to unity after 1861Solving the ‘Venetian question’, 1861–66Solving the problem of Rome, 1861–70Unity in 1870
The Unification of Germany, c1840–71Paper 2
Topic overviewThe political situation in the 1840sEconomic and social developments in the 1840sShort-term causes of revolution, 1846–48Outbreak of revolution in 1848The Frankfurt Parliament, 1848–49Revolution in Prussia, 1848–49Reasons for the failure of the revolutionsThe political impact of the German revolutionsAustrian strengths and weaknessesEconomic developments in PrussiaPolitical developments in PrussiaPrussia’s victory over Austria, 1862–1866Prussia’s role in Germany, 1866–67Prussia’s relations with France, 1866–70The Franco-Prussian War and the German EmpireReasons for Prussia's success
Mao’s China, 1949–76Paper 2
Topic overviewChina in 1949The new power structureDefeating the CCP’s opponentsChina and the Korean WarEarly changes in agriculture, 1949–57The communes and their organisationThe First Five-Year Plan, 1952–56The Great Leap Forward, 1958-62Mao’s reasons for launching the Cultural RevolutionThe Red Guards and Red TerrorAttacks on Mao’s political and class enemiesWinding down the Cultural Revolution, 1968–76The changing status of womenEducation and health provisionCultural changeReligion under Mao
The German Democratic Republic, 1949–90Paper 2
Topic overviewThe post-war division of GermanyThe system of governmentEconomic developments, 1949–61Defending the GDR, 1949–61Economic situation after 1961Honecker and the development of a GDR identityRelations with West GermanyThe growing international prestige of the GDRSocial change and welfare programmesRepression and controlThe SED and the Protestant churchWestern influences on the GDREconomic situation in the 1980sGorbachev’s influenceThe events of 1989The end of the GDR, 1989-90
India, c1914–48: The Road to IndependencePaper 2
Topic overviewIndia in 1914India and the First World WarEffects of war on British ruleThe growth of nationalismGandhi and civil disobedience, 1920–22Congress reorganised, 1922–30The Muslim LeagueBritish responseFailure of the Round Table Conferences, 1930–32Political developments, 1932–35Government of India Act and its impact, 1935–39Reaction to outbreak of the Second World WarImpact of the Second World War on Indian politicsBritain and India, 1942-45Attempts at political settlement, 1945–46Withdrawal, partition and independence, 1947–48
South Africa, 1948–94: From Apartheid State to ‘Rainbow Nation’Paper 2
Topic overviewLife in South Africa c1948National Party victory 1948Codifying and implementing apartheid, 1948–59African nationalism, 1948–59Resistance and government reaction, 1960-61Creating a republic, 1960–61African nationalist radicalisation, 1961–68Strengthening ‘separate development’, 1961–68Black Consciousness and the Soweto uprisingThe ANC re-strengthenedDomestic challenges to National Party power, 1974–83External pressures on National Party power, 1974–83Revolt in the townships, 1984–87Botha’s decision to negotiate, 1985–89Negotiation and compromise, 1989–91A new political settlement, 1992–94
The Rise and Fall of Fascism in Italy, c1911–46Paper 2
Topic overviewItaly in the early twentieth centuryGiolitti’s government in 1911Growing instability, 1912–14Impact of the First World WarChallenges to the Liberal StateMussolini and the development of fascism, 1919–22Mussolini gains power, 1920–22The creation of a fascist dictatorship, 1922–26Consent and controlRelationship with political and economic interestsEconomic policiesRelationship with the Catholic ChurchItaly’s international standing in 1935Foreign policy, 1935–40Impact of the Second World War, 1940–43Democracy restored, 1943–46
Spain, 1930–78: Republicanism, Francoism and the Re-Establishment of DemocracyPaper 2
Topic overviewSpain, 1930–31Years of reform, 1931–33Years of reaction, 1933–36The failure of the Popular Front 1936Spain at the outbreak of war July–August 1936The course of the warLife during the warReasons for Nationalist victoryCreation of the ‘new state’Controlling society under FrancoEconomic development under FrancoThe dictatorship and foreign relations, 1939–56Economic and social change, 1956–75Political developments, 1956–75Planning and managing successionTransition to democracy
The USA, c1920–55: Boom, Bust and RecoveryPaper 2
Topic overviewThe economic boom of the 1920sCauses of the crash of 1929Changes in American society in the 1920sCultural change in the 1920sThe spread of the depression, 1929–32Hoover’s response to the depression, 1929–33Roosevelt and the First New Deal, 1933–35The Second New Deal, 1935–38The New Deal and the economyThe New Deal, the war and ethnic minoritiesSocial and cultural changesThe war and the economy, 1941–45Economic transformationThe end of post-war euphoriaCultural changeThe changing status of minorities
The USA, 1955–92: Conformity and ChallengePaper 2
Topic overviewUrbanisation and affluenceCultural conformity and challengeThe civil rights movementKennedy’s New FrontierCivil rights: Malcolm X and Black PowerProtest and personal freedomJohnson’s Great Society, 1964–68Reactions to the counter-culture, 1968–72The crisis of political leadershipThe impact of economic change on societyChanging popular cultureProgress in individual and civil rightsNew directions in economic policyThe Religious Right and its criticsCultural challengeSocial change in the USA, 1955-92
Lancastrians, Yorkists and Henry VII, 1399–1509Paper 3
Topic overviewMajor landowners and the governing of the kingdomCoping with challenge – disorder and local rivalries, 1399–1509Royal income, 1399–1509War and diplomacy, 1399–1509The crisis of 1399Henry IV's problems after 1399Surviving rebellion, 1403–05Renewing the war with France and the 1415 campaignThe Lollard challenge and the royal responseThe Burgundian Alliance and the Treaty of TroyesHenry VI, Margaret of Anjou and the governing of EnglandCade's rebellion, 1450York's protectorate and the triumph of Edward IVThe murder of Clarence and the death of Edward IVThe challenges faced by Richard IIIHenry Tudor's victory at Bosworth FieldClaiming the throne and striving for securityChallengers and their supportersResistance to taxation
Rebellion and Disorder Under the Tudors, 1485–1603Paper 3
Topic overviewGovernment and administration, 1485–1603Crown, church and parliament, 1485–1603Involving the localities in governance, 1485–1603The crown and the country, 1485–1603Henry Tudor’s hold on the throne, 1485–87The challenges of Lambert Simnel and Perkin WarbeckForeign support for the challengersHenrician religious changes, 1533–37The Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of GraceLeaders of the Pilgrimage of Grace and its suppressionThe social and economic reasons for rebellionThe challenge posed by Kett’s rebellionLeaders of Kett's rebellion and its suppressionThe causes of and development of the challengeThe main events of the revoltFailure and its impactReasons for the Nine Years' WarKey events and individuals of the Nine Years' WarWhy the war lasted and how England won
The Golden Age of Spain, 1474–1598Paper 3
Topic overviewSpanish power in Italy and the MediterraneanExtending influence to the north and west, 1474–1598The Spanish army and navy, 1474-1598The changing nature and extent of financial resources, 1474–1598Jews and conversos in fifteenth-century SpainThe foundation of the Inquisition, 1478-80The expulsion of the Jews in 1492Charles von Habsburg's accession in 1516The revolt of the ComunerosThe impact and significance of the revoltThe extent of inflation and contemporary commentGold and silver imports and the debate on inflationPopulation growth and the social impact of the price revolutionThe drive for orthodoxy under Philip IIReasons for the Great Rebellion of 1568The Granada rebellion and its repressionThe Kingdom of Aragon and royal authorityThe Pérez affair and the revolt in Zaragoza, 1590–92Consequences of the revolt for royal power in Aragon
The Witch Craze in Britain, Europe and North America, c1580–c1750Paper 3
Topic overviewThe existence and growth of scepticism, c1580–c1750Notable sceptic publications, c1580-c1750Making sense of the universe and its impact, c1580–c1750The changing approach to human understanding and knowledge, c1580–c1750The origins of the persecutionThe widening net of accusationThe extent of persecutions in Scotland to 1597The context of the Pendle witch trialsThe origins of the caseThe Pendle trial of 1612The economic, political and religious contextNumbers and social groups affected by the witch huntsWhy the Bamberg witch hunt endedEconomic and political contextGeography, numbers, class and gender of victimsThe ending of the witch crazeThe social, economic and political context of SalemThe influence of Cotton MatherWhy the Salem witch hunt ended
Industrialisation and Social Change in Britain, 1759–1928: Forging a New SocietyPaper 3
Topic overviewReasons for changes to working patterns and conditionsThe impact of workers' unions on working conditionsChanges to children’s lives, 1759–1928Reasons for changing attitudes to childrenThe development of Wedgwood chinaWedgwood and the Trent and Mersey canalWedgwood and the abolition of the slave tradeThe growth of Quarry Bank MillDealing with the labour problemQuarry Bank Mill and the cotton industryThe construction of the Great Western RailwayBrunel’s diverse design and engineering skillsBrunel's impact on passenger and goods transportThe design and production of the Rover Safety BicycleThe safety bicycle and leisureThe safety bicycle and the 'New Woman'The Longbridge works, 1905–18The Austin 7The Austin 7 and mass car ownership
Poverty, Public Health and the State in Britain, c1780–1939Paper 3
Topic overviewThe impetus for change, c1780–1939Changing attitudes to public healthCentral government and local initiatives in public healthIndividuals who improved public healthThe organisation of the parish-based relief systemIndoor relief in poorhouses, workhouses and houses of correctionPressures for changeReforming the Poor LawThe impact of the workhouseOpposition to the new Poor LawChanging government controlCharity and self-help in dealing with povertySmiles, Mayhew and Dickens on povertyPressures for reformThe Royal Commission on the Poor Laws, 1905-09The impact of the Liberal reformsPoverty in the 1920s and 1930sThe Jarrow March and the hunger marchesGovernment measures in the 1930s
Britain: Losing and Gaining an Empire, 1763–1914Paper 3
Topic overviewChanging patterns of trade, 1763-1914Ports, entrepôts and trade routesThe changing Royal Navy, 1763-1914Key strategic bases around the globeTensions between colonists and the British, 1770–75Clashes between British forces and rebels, 1775–76Britain's defeat, 1777–83Australia as a penal colony and Lachlan MacquarieBritish settlement and the AboriginesThe spreading impact of settlement in AustraliaGovernment in Upper and Lower CanadaThe revolts of 1837–38The Earl of Durham and the Durham ReportThe East India Company and the Governor GeneralWilliam Sleeman’s campaign against ThagiThe Indian RebellionReasons for intervention in Egypt, 1882Egypt as a veiled protectorateThe problem of the Sudan and its conquest
The British Experience of Warfare, c1790–1918Paper 3
Topic overviewThe military and reasons for changes 1790-1918The recruitment of the fighting forces 1790-1918Changing weaponry 1790-1918The populace and the war effort 1790-1918Facing the French threat on landFacing the French threat at seaThe economic impact of the French WarsFacing the Russian threat in the CrimeaThe problems of medical carePublic attitudes to the conduct of the Crimean WarFacing the Boers in southern AfricaRoberts, Kitchener and Buller in the Boer WarPublic attitudes to the Boer WarFrom a war of movement to attritionPublic perception of the Western FrontHaig's major offensivesThe impact of aerial reconnaissanceThe Royal Flying Corps and air powerZeppelin and Gotha bombing of British towns
Protest, Agitation and Parliamentary Reform in Britain, c1780–1928Paper 3
Topic overviewChanges in the franchise, c1780–1928Reform and redistribution, c1780–1928The influence of the crown and aristocracyChanges in political parties, c1780–1928Aims, tactics and impact of extra-parliamentary protestGovernment responses to radical protestPaine, Cartwright, Cobbett and HuntChartism’s aims and actionsFluctuations in support for ChartismGovernment responses to ChartismReasons why the Contagious Diseases Acts were introducedThe Acts’ impact on prostitutes and ordinary womenJosephine Butler and the Contagious Diseases ActsWSPU organisation and tacticsEmily Davison and the PankhurstsGovernment attitudes to female suffrageShinwell, Maxton, Bevin and the Glasgow strikesUnion revival after the First World WarThe General Strike, 1926
Ireland and the Union, c1774–1923Paper 3
Topic overviewAgitation and rebellion, c1774–c1870The campaign for Home Rule, c1870–1910Evolving government policies c1774–1922British politicians and Irish agitationThe Penal Laws and the Catholic Relief ActsDaniel O'Connell and Catholic emancipationRemoving restrictions on Irish trade, 1778–82, and its legacyThe textile industry in UlsterThe development of shipbuildingHickson, Mulholland and the industrialisation of UlsterLandlords, monoculture and blightGovernment response to the FamineSocial and economic impacts of depopulationThe Dublin Land Conference and the Land Act 1870The long depression and Irish agricultureDavitt, Forster and Parnell in the Land WarsWorking and living conditions for unskilled urban workersEvents and significance of the Dublin general strike 1913–14British trade unions and the Dublin strike
The Changing Nature of Warfare, 1859–1991: Perception and RealityPaper 3
Topic overviewChanges in the reporting of war, 1859-1991The remembrance and portrayal of warOfficial attempts to shape public perceptionThe impact of propaganda and news controlRailways and steam boats in moving armiesIncreased firepowerVon Moltke and the Prussian general staffSmokeless propellants and machine guns before 1914Artillery and the Schlieffen and XVII plansTechnology and the failure of a war of movementThe internal combustion engine, 1917-18New technology and French planning in the 1930sNew technology and German planning in the 1930sThe impact of submarines, 1917-18The impact of submarines, 1939-45Air power at Pearl Harbour and MidwayDevelopments in aerial warfareThe destructive impact of terror bombing, 1943–45Varying impacts of air power
Germany, 1871–1990: United, Divided and ReunitedPaper 3
Topic overviewChanges in class structure and prosperity, 1871–1990The changing role of women, 1871–1990Strength in manufacturing and agriculture's slow decline, 1871–1990Government policy and economic change, 1871-1990Impact of the new Germany's constitutionThe Reichstag and the political partiesAttempts to consolidate the new GermanyStrains of war, tensions and military dictatorship 1917Constitutional reforms from above 1918The attempt to achieve unity through democracyGleichschaltung, 1933–34Hitler's role as FührerThe nature of the new Nazi stateThe creation of the FRG and its ConstitutionAdenauer, the CDU and the SPDDe-Nazification and coming to terms with the pastThe flood of refugees from the GDR in 1989The revolution in the GDR, 1989Reasons for and problems of reunification
The Making of Modern Russia, 1855–1991Paper 3
Topic overviewChanges in government policy, 1855-1991Living standards and leaving the land, 1855-1991Reform, innovation and productivity, 1861–1991Feeding the population, 1861–1991The Crimean War and army reformLegal and local government reformFreedom of expression, universities and the pressThe Russo-Japanese War as a stimulus to reformBloody Sunday 1905Repression of opposition in town and countrysideImpact of defeat and suffering, 1916–17Reasons for the October RevolutionThe Bolsheviks in power, 1917–18Khrushchev and the impetus to reformDe-StalinisationAdministrative reformsGorbachev and the impetus to reformImpacts of glasnost and perestroikaDivisions in the reformist camp, conservative opposition
The Making of Modern China, 1860–1997Paper 3
Topic overviewImproved communications and the application of western technologies, 1860–1997The growth of mining and manufacturing, 1860–1997Ideas and ideologies promoting change, 1860-1997The roles of individuals in promoting economic growth, 1860–1997The Treaty of Tianjin, 1860Treaty ports and the significance of growing foreign tradeForeign language schools and missionariesThe Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95The Triple Intervention and new concessionsThe Boxer Rebellion, 1898-1900The Manchurian Crisis of 1931-33Reasons for all-out war in 1937The impact of war, 1937-39, and the role of the USARussian demands and the Khrushchev-Mao clashMao's growing fears of the Soviet UnionMilitary confrontation in 1969China's growing importance in world organisationsCloser cooperation with Japan and the USAThe peaceful return of Hong Kong, 1997
Civil Rights and Race Relations in the USA, 1850–2009Paper 3
Topic overviewThe changing geographical distribution of black Americans, 1850–2009Changing settlement and segregation, 1850-2009Literature and perceptions of race relationsVisual portrayals and perceptions of raceThe Thirteenth Amendment and its importanceRadical Reconstruction, 1867–77The backlash: the Klan and lynchingThe Civil Rights Cases of 1883The spread of Jim Crow LawsPlessy v. Ferguson and the segregation casesSouthern whites in the Democrat PartyThe failure to address black grievancesImpact of the New DealCivil rights activities, 1954–63Civil rights 1964-68Increasing divisionsBarack Obama's political career to 2006Winning the Democratic nominationReasons for victory in November 2008
Mass Media and Social Change in Britain, 1882–2004Paper 3
Topic overviewChanges to women’s personal lives, 1882–2004Reasons for changes in women's working livesChange and continuity in leisure, 1882–2004Reasons for change in leisure patternsBeaverbrook and NorthcliffeRothermereThe Daily Herald and George LansburyReporting the warBroadcasting to the home frontPropaganda broadcasts and Lord Haw HawSatire and attitudes to authorityFilm, television and social issuesThe ‘Swinging Sixties’ media imageThatcher government policies and the mediaThe promotion of competition in broadcastingControl and complianceThe dossier claims and the February 2003 briefingThe government, the BBC and the death of Dr KellyThe Hutton Enquiry and its implications
The Rise and Fall of Fascism in Italy, c1911–46
Mussolini and the development of fascism, 1919–22
- 3 things to know
- Paper 2
Overview
Recall questions on his background, the founding of the Fasci and their radical first programme, the failure of 1919, the squadristi, and who paid them.
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
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Numbers
What was Mussolini's background?
Numbers
When and how were the Fasci di Combattimento founded?
Questions from this subtopic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
When and where did Mussolini found the fascist movement?
Model answer
In Milan in March 1919, as the Fasci di Combattimento.
- 2
Who were the squadristi (Blackshirts)?
Model answer
Fascist paramilitary squads that used violence against socialists, unions and local councils.
- 3
What was Mussolini's background?
Model answer
A blacksmith's son and former schoolteacher who became editor of the socialist paper Avanti before being expelled in 1914 for supporting intervention.
- 4
When and how were the Fasci di Combattimento founded?
Model answer
In Milan in March 1919, a small group of veterans, syndicalists and nationalists, whose first programme was radical, republican and anticlerical.
- 5
What did the 1919 fascist programme demand?
Model answer
Universal suffrage including women, an eight-hour day, a capital levy, land to peasants and the abolition of the Senate, positions later abandoned.
- 6
How did fascism perform in the 1919 election?
Model answer
Disastrously: it won no seats and Mussolini polled fewer than 5,000 votes in Milan, so the movement appeared finished.
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