Numbers
OCR A-Level Psychology H567
Research Methods and Techniques
Topic overviewLaboratory, field and quasi experimentsEvaluating experiments: validity, control and realismStructured, unstructured, naturalistic and controlled observationsParticipant, non-participant, overt and covert observationsQuestionnaires, structured interviews and unstructured interviewsSemi-structured interviews and evaluating self-reportsCorrelational research and correlation coefficients
Planning and Conducting Research
Topic overviewAims, research questions and hypothesesTarget populations, random and opportunity samplingSelf-selected, snowball and stratified samplingRepeated measures designIndependent measures and matched participants designsVariables, operationalisation and control of extraneous variablesBehavioural categories, coding frames and time samplingEvent sampling and inter-rater reliability in observationsClosed and open questions, Likert and semantic differential scalesWriting questionnaire items: wording, fillers and piloting
Data Recording, Analysis and Presentation
Topic overviewRaw data tables, standard form and decimal formSignificant figures, estimation and the rangeNominal, ordinal and interval dataQuantitative, qualitative, primary and secondary dataMeasures of central tendencyMeasures of dispersionPercentages, fractions, ratios and graphsNormal and skewed distributions and probabilitySignificance levels, Type 1 and Type 2 errors and critical valuesParametric criteria and choosing a non-parametric testDegrees of freedom, choosing a test and mathematical symbolsRepresentativeness, generalisability and types of reliabilityTypes of validityDemand characteristics, social desirability and researcher biasThe BPS Code of Ethics and ethical issues in research
Report Writing and Scientific Communication
Practical Activities and the Nature of Science
Topic overviewConducting and analysing self-report, observation, experimental and correlational practicalsRisk assessment and management in practicalsCause and effect, falsification and replicabilityReplication, objectivity, induction and deductionHypothesis testing, manipulation of variables and quantifiable measurementsHow society makes decisions about science and psychology's contribution to society
Mathematical Requirements for Research Methods
Topic overviewDecimal and standard form, percentages and ratiosFractions, percentages and estimating resultsSignificant figures and calculating the meanMedian, mode and choosing a measure of central tendencyThe range and standard deviationFrequency tables, bar charts, histograms and scatter diagramsCorrelation coefficients, pie charts and translating between data formsProbability, significance levels and principles of samplingNormal and skewed distributionsSelecting an inferential testCritical values and deciding whether a result is significantCalculating chi-square, sign test, Wilcoxon and Mann-Whitney values and reporting resultsDistinguishing levels of measurementIdentifying levels of measurement in quantitative and qualitative dataConverting qualitative data and primary and secondary dataOrder of magnitude estimates and statistical symbolsReporting significance in symbols and substituting into formulaeSolving equations for Spearman's rho and chi-square
Studying and Evaluating the Core Studies: The Common Framework
Topic overviewBackground, aims, design and sample of a core studyProcedure, results and conclusions of a core studyComparing classic and contemporary studies in their pairsIndividual, social and cultural diversity in paired studiesResearch methods and techniques across the core studiesTypes of data and validity across the core studiesReliability, ethics, sampling bias and ethnocentrism across the core studiesThe five areas of psychology and their key themesRelating each core study to its area of psychology
Core Studies: Social Area
Topic overviewMilgram (1963) obedience: background, sample and apparatusMilgram (1963) obedience: procedure, results and conclusionsMilgram (1963) obedience: evaluation and applicationsBocchiaro et al. (2012) disobedience and whistle-blowing: background and sampleBocchiaro et al. (2012) disobedience and whistle-blowing: procedure, results and conclusionsBocchiaro et al. (2012) disobedience and whistle-blowing: evaluation and applicationsResponses to people in authority: similarities and differences between Milgram and Bocchiaro et al.Responses to people in authority: what Bocchiaro et al. add to MilgramPiliavin et al. (1969) subway Samaritans: background, design and methodPiliavin et al. (1969) subway Samaritans: sample, materials and procedurePiliavin et al. (1969) subway Samaritans: results and findingsPiliavin et al. (1969) subway Samaritans: conclusions, the cost-reward model and evaluationLevine et al. (2001) cross-cultural altruism: background, sample and materialsLevine et al. (2001) cross-cultural altruism: procedure and resultsLevine et al. (2001) cross-cultural altruism: conclusions and evaluationResponses to people in need: similarities and differences between Piliavin et al. and Levine et al.Responses to people in need: what Levine et al. add to Piliavin et al.
Core Studies: Cognitive Area
Topic overviewLoftus and Palmer (1974) eyewitness testimony: background and the first experimentLoftus and Palmer (1974) eyewitness testimony: the second experiment, conclusions and evaluationGrant et al. (1998) context-dependent memory: background, method and procedureGrant et al. (1998) context-dependent memory: results, conclusions and evaluationMemory: similarities and differences between Loftus and Palmer and Grant et al.Memory: what Grant et al. add to Loftus and PalmerMoray (1959) auditory attention: background, method and sampleMoray (1959) auditory attention: procedure, results and findingsMoray (1959) auditory attention: conclusions and evaluationSimons and Chabris (1999) visual inattention: background and procedureSimons and Chabris (1999) visual inattention: results, conclusions and evaluationAttention: similarities and differences between Moray and Simons and ChabrisAttention: what Simons and Chabris add to Moray
Core Studies: Developmental Area
Topic overviewBandura et al. (1961) transmission of aggression: background, method and sampleBandura et al. (1961) transmission of aggression: materials and procedureBandura et al. (1961) transmission of aggression: results, conclusions and evaluationChaney et al. (2004) Funhaler study: background, method and procedureChaney et al. (2004) Funhaler study: results, conclusions and evaluationExternal influences on children's behaviour: comparing Bandura et al. and Chaney et al.Kohlberg (1968) stages of moral development: method and the six stagesKohlberg (1968) stages of moral development: findings, conclusions and evaluationLee et al. (1997) evaluations of lying and truth-telling: background, method and materialsLee et al. (1997) evaluations of lying and truth-telling: procedure, results and conclusionsLee et al. (1997) evaluations of lying and truth-telling: evaluationMoral development: similarities and differences between Kohlberg and Lee et al.Moral development: what Lee et al. add to Kohlberg
Core Studies: Biological Area
Topic overviewSperry (1968) split-brain study: background, apparatus and procedureSperry (1968) split-brain study: results, conclusions and evaluationCasey et al. (2011) neural correlates of delay of gratification: background and sampleCasey et al. (2011) neural correlates of delay of gratification: the go/no-go task and resultsCasey et al. (2011) neural correlates of delay of gratification: conclusions and evaluationRegions of the brain: comparing Sperry and Casey et al.Blakemore and Cooper (1970) early visual experience: background and methodBlakemore and Cooper (1970) early visual experience: procedure and resultsBlakemore and Cooper (1970) early visual experience: conclusions and evaluationMaguire et al. (2000) taxi drivers: background, method and sampleMaguire et al. (2000) taxi drivers: MRI analysis and resultsMaguire et al. (2000) taxi drivers: conclusions and evaluationBrain plasticity: comparing Blakemore and Cooper and Maguire et al.
Core Studies: Individual Differences Area
Topic overviewFreud (1909) Little Hans: background, method and early historyFreud (1909) Little Hans: the horse phobia and fantasiesFreud (1909) Little Hans: conclusions and evaluationBaron-Cohen et al. (1997) autism in adults: background, method and sampleBaron-Cohen et al. (1997) autism in adults: the Eyes Task, control tasks and resultsBaron-Cohen et al. (1997) autism in adults: further results, conclusions and evaluationUnderstanding disorders: comparing Freud and Baron-Cohen et al.Gould (1982) bias in IQ testing: background and the army testsGould (1982) bias in IQ testing: Yerkes's conclusions and how the tests were givenGould (1982) bias in IQ testing: consequences and evaluationHancock et al. (2011) language of psychopaths: background and procedureHancock et al. (2011) language of psychopaths: results, conclusions and evaluationMeasuring differences: comparing Gould and Hancock et al.
Areas and Perspectives in Psychology
Topic overviewThe social area: defining principles, Milgram and Bocchiaro et al.The social area: Piliavin et al. and Levine et al.The social area: strengths, weaknesses, applications and comparisonThe cognitive area: defining principles, Loftus and Palmer and Grant et al.The cognitive area: Moray and Simons and ChabrisThe cognitive area: strengths, weaknesses, applications and comparisonThe developmental area: defining principles and Bandura et al.The developmental area: Chaney et al., Kohlberg and Lee et al.The developmental area: strengths, weaknesses, applications and comparisonThe biological area: defining principles and SperryThe biological area: Casey et al., Blakemore and Cooper and Maguire et al.The biological area: strengths, weaknesses, applications and comparisonThe individual differences area: defining principles and Freud's Little HansThe individual differences area: Baron-Cohen et al., Gould and Hancock et al.The individual differences area: strengths, weaknesses, applications and comparisonThe behaviourist perspective: conditioning, reinforcement and observational learningThe behaviourist perspective: Bandura et al., the Funhaler study and strengthsThe behaviourist perspective: weaknesses, applications and comparison with the psychodynamic perspectiveThe psychodynamic perspective: personality structure, psychosexual stages and defence mechanismsThe psychodynamic perspective: Little Hans, Kohlberg and Hancock et al.The psychodynamic perspective: strengths, weaknesses and comparison with the behaviourist perspective
Debates in Psychology
Topic overviewThe nature/nurture debate: concepts, positions and researchThe nature/nurture debate: applications and comparison with other debatesThe freewill/determinism debate: concepts, positions and researchThe freewill/determinism debate: applications and comparison with other debatesThe reductionism/holism debate: concepts, positions and researchThe reductionism/holism debate: applications and comparison with other debatesThe individual/situational debate: concepts, positions and researchThe individual/situational debate: applications and comparison with other debatesThe usefulness of research debate: concepts and criteriaThe usefulness of research debate: research illustrating each positionThe usefulness of research debate: applications and comparison with other debatesThe ethical considerations debate: ethical guidelinesThe ethical considerations debate: cost-benefit analysis and research illustrating ethical issuesThe ethical considerations debate: positions, applications and comparison with other debatesThe socially sensitive research debate: concepts and positionsThe socially sensitive research debate: research, applications and comparisonThe psychology as a science debate: features of scienceThe psychology as a science debate: positions and supporting researchThe psychology as a science debate: evidence against, applications and comparison
Practical Applications of Psychology
Issues in Mental Health
Topic overviewHistorical views of mental illnessDefining abnormality and categorising mental disordersRosenhan (1973) on being sane in insane places: background and procedureRosenhan (1973) on being sane in insane places: results, conclusions and evaluationCharacteristics of affective, psychotic and anxiety disordersThe biochemical explanation of mental illnessGenetic and brain abnormality explanations of mental illnessGottesman et al. (2010) offspring of psychiatrically ill parents: method and risk figuresGottesman et al. (2010) offspring of psychiatrically ill parents: conclusions and evaluationBiological treatments: antipsychotics, SSRIs and ECTBehaviourist and cognitive explanations of mental illnessHumanistic, psychodynamic and cognitive neuroscience explanations of mental illnessSzasz (2011) the myth of mental illness: mental illness as a metaphorSzasz (2011) the myth of mental illness: objections to coercive psychiatry and evaluationNon-biological treatments: CBT, REBT and systematic desensitisation
Child PsychologyApplied option
Topic overviewWhat psychologists mean by intelligenceBiological factors affecting intelligenceVan Leeuwen et al. (2008) twin-family study of IQ: background and procedureVan Leeuwen et al. (2008) twin-family study of IQ: results, conclusions and evaluationAssessing intelligence with standardised testsBrain development in childhood and adolescenceImpact of brain development on risk-taking behaviourBarkley-Levenson and Galvan (2014) expected value in the adolescent brain: background and methodBarkley-Levenson and Galvan (2014) expected value in the adolescent brain: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies to reduce risk-taking using knowledge of brain developmentPerceptual development in children and animalsGibson and Walk (1960) the visual cliffPlay strategies to develop perception in young childrenPiaget's theory of cognitive developmentImpact of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner on educationWood et al. (1976) the role of tutoring in problem-solvingCognitive strategies to improve revision and learningDevelopment of attachment in babiesImpact of failure to develop attachmentsAinsworth and Bell (1970) the Strange Situation: procedure and attachment typesAinsworth and Bell (1970) the Strange Situation: insecure types, conclusions and evaluationDeveloping an attachment-friendly environmentInfluence of television advertising on childrenStereotyping and materialism in children's advertisingJohnson and Young (2002) gendered voices in children's advertising: background and methodJohnson and Young (2002) gendered voices in children's advertising: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies to reduce the impact of advertising aimed at children
Criminal PsychologyApplied option
Topic overviewPhysiological explanations of criminal behaviourGenetic factors and non-physiological explanations of criminal behaviourRaine et al. (1997) brain abnormalities in murderers: background, procedure and brain findingsRaine et al. (1997) brain abnormalities in murderers: further findings, conclusions and evaluationBiological strategies for preventing criminal behaviourMotivating factors and bias in collecting and processing forensic evidenceHall and Player (2008) emotional context and fingerprint analysis: background and methodHall and Player (2008) emotional context and fingerprint analysis: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies for reducing bias in collecting and processing forensic evidenceCollecting and using evidence from witnesses and suspectsMemon and Higham (1999) review of the cognitive interview: aims and componentsMemon and Higham (1999) review of the cognitive interview: findings, conclusions and evaluationPolice interview strategies: the cognitive interview and the PEACE modelHow juries are persuaded by the characteristics of defendants and witnessesPersuading juries: speech style, expert witnesses, order of evidence and publicityDixon et al. (2002) accent and perceptions of guilt: background and methodDixon et al. (2002) accent and perceptions of guilt: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies to influence jury decision makingNeighbourhood features, broken windows and defensible spaceZero tolerance policy and its influence on crimeWilson and Kelling (1982) broken windows: foot patrols and the abandoned car demonstrationWilson and Kelling (1982) broken windows: the argument, recommendations and evaluationEnvironmental strategies for crime preventionAims of punishmentEffects of imprisonment and reform as responses to offendingHaney et al. (1973) simulated prison study: background, procedure and the prisoners' rebellionHaney et al. (1973) simulated prison study: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies for reducing reoffending
Environmental PsychologyApplied option
Topic overviewEnvironmental stressors and the stress responseCrowding, heat and pollution and their impact on biological responsesBlack and Black (2007) aircraft noise, stress and hypertension: background and methodBlack and Black (2007) aircraft noise, stress and hypertension: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies for managing environmental stressTypes of biological rhythm and how they are controlledImpact of disrupting biological rhythms on behaviourCzeisler et al. (1982) rotating shift schedules: background, method and sleep findingsCzeisler et al. (1982) rotating shift schedules: outcomes, conclusions and evaluationStrategies for reducing the effects of jet lag and shift workConservation behaviours, attitudes and social normsFeedback, prompts, framing and other factors that influence conservationLord (1994) message and source strategies for recycling: background and methodLord (1994) message and source strategies for recycling: results, conclusions and evaluationTechniques to increase recycling and other conservation behaviourCognitive overload and display designVigilance, alarms and the impact of observation in the workplaceDrews and Doig (2014) configural vital sign display: background and procedureDrews and Doig (2014) configural vital sign display: results, conclusions and evaluationWorkplace design based on ergonomic researchImpact of the built environment and defensible spaceUrban renewal, housing and wellbeingUlrich (1984) view through a window and recovery from surgery: background and methodUlrich (1984) view through a window and recovery from surgery: results, conclusions and evaluationEnvironmental design to improve health and wellbeingPersonal space and proxemicsTerritory and personal space in the workplaceWells (2000) office personalisation: background, method and gender differencesWells (2000) office personalisation: wellbeing, company policies and evaluationOffice design strategies based on territory and personal space
Sport and Exercise PsychologyApplied option
Topic overviewArousal, anxiety, drive theory and the inverted-U hypothesisOptimal arousal and measuring anxiety in sportFazey and Hardy (1988) catastrophe model: criticisms of the inverted-U and the cusp modelFazey and Hardy (1988) catastrophe model: predictions, conclusions and evaluationTechniques for managing arousal and anxiety in sportBenefits of exercise to mental healthLewis et al. (2014) dance and mood in Parkinson's disease: background and procedureLewis et al. (2014) dance and mood in Parkinson's disease: results, conclusions and evaluationExercise strategies to improve mental healthSelf-efficacy, sports confidence, sport orientation and imageryMunroe-Chandler et al. (2008) imagery and confidence in youth football: background and procedureMunroe-Chandler et al. (2008) imagery and confidence in youth football: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies for motivating athletesPersonality, its measurement and its relationship to sportKroll and Crenshaw (1970) personality profiles of four athletic groups: background and procedureKroll and Crenshaw (1970) personality profiles of four athletic groups: results, conclusions and evaluationUsing knowledge of personality to improve sports performanceTeams, cohesion, coaching and leadershipSmith et al. (1979) coach effectiveness training: background and procedureSmith et al. (1979) coach effectiveness training: results, conclusions and evaluationStrategies for improving team performanceHow an audience can facilitate or inhibit sports performanceHome advantage and audience effects in sportZajonc et al. (1969) social facilitation in cockroaches: background and procedureZajonc et al. (1969) social facilitation in cockroaches: results, conclusions and evaluationTraining for and playing in spectator sports
Methodological Issues and Debates Running Through Applied Psychology
Topic overviewNature and nurture across applied psychologyFreewill, determinism, reductionism and holism across applied psychologyIndividual and situational explanations across applied psychologyUsefulness of research in applied psychologyPsychology as a science across applied psychologyEthical considerations in applied researchConducting socially sensitive research in applied psychologyEthnocentrism across applied psychologyValidity in the key research of applied psychologyReliability and sampling bias in the key research of applied psychologyHow different areas and perspectives explain applied topicsSocial, moral, cultural and spiritual issues raised by the applied topicsHow the key research contributes to understanding individual, social and cultural diversityHow society decides about scientific issues and psychology's contribution to the economy
Mathematical Requirements for Research Methods
Significant figures and calculating the mean
- 3 things to know
- Component 01
Overview
Recall questions on what a significant figure is, rounding values to two and three significant figures, reporting correlation coefficients and means sensibly, and calculating arithmetic means.
What you need to know
Answer each one before you reveal it.
Your recallNot started
Numbers
How is the arithmetic mean calculated?
Key term
What is meant by a significant figure?
Questions from this subtopic
Each one with the model answer underneath.
- 1
What is meant by a significant figure?
Model answer
A digit that carries meaningful information about the precision of a value, counted from the first non-zero digit.
- 2
Express 0.6837 to two significant figures and to three significant figures.
Model answer
To two significant figures it is 0.68, and to three it is 0.684.
- 3
Round 0.04629 to two significant figures.
Model answer
To two significant figures it is 0.046.
- 4
Give 12,486 to three significant figures.
Model answer
It is 1.25 × 10⁴, written in standard form so that exactly three significant figures are shown.
- 5
To how many significant figures is a correlation coefficient normally reported?
Model answer
To two or three significant figures.
- 6
Why should a calculated mean not be quoted to six decimal places?
Model answer
The answer cannot be more precise than the data it came from, so extra digits imply an accuracy the measurements do not have.
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