Why is the cosmological argument classed as a posteriori?

It starts from observed features of the universe — that things move, are caused and could have failed to exist — rather than from the concept of God.

Summarise Aquinas's First Way.

Things in the world are in motion, whatever is moved is moved by another, an infinite regress of movers is impossible, so there must be an unmoved mover, which people call God.

Summarise Aquinas's Second Way.

Everything has an efficient cause, nothing can cause itself, an infinite regress of causes is impossible, so there must be a first cause, which people call God.

WJEC A-Level Religious Studies 603-0277-X

Christianity: Religious Figures and Sacred TextsChristianity

Topic overview The birth narratives and the incarnation The resurrection: Bultmann, Wright and the afterlife The Bible as authority in daily life Evaluating the narratives, the resurrection and biblical guidance

Christianity: Key Religious ConceptsChristianity

Topic overview The nature of God: male language and divine suffering The doctrine of the Trinity Theories of the Atonement Evaluating God's nature, the Trinity and the Atonement

Christianity: Religious Life and Moral PrinciplesChristianity

Topic overview Faith, works and justification The community of believers and the role of churches Key moral principles of Christianity Evaluating justification, the Church and moral priorities

Christianity: Practices and Religious IdentityChristianity

Topic overview Diversity in baptism Diversity in the Eucharist Diversity in Christmas and Easter Evaluating baptism, Eucharist and festivals

Islam: Religious Figures and Sacred TextsIslam

Topic overview Muhammad in Makkah: jahiliyya and the Night of Power The Hijrah and Muhammad's leadership in Madinah The Qur'an as a source of wisdom and authority Evaluating Muhammad's leadership and the authority of the Qur'an

Islam: Key Religious ConceptsIslam

Topic overview Tawhid, shirk and the shahadah Nabi, rasul, nadir and risalah Malaikah and akhirah Evaluating the concepts of Allah, prophethood and judgement

Islam: Religious Life and Moral PrinciplesIslam

Topic overview Salah and the forms of Muslim prayer Zakah, sadaqah and the Hajj The five categories of action as a framework for living Evaluating prayer, giving and the categories of action

Islam: Practices and Religious IdentityIslam

Topic overview The role of the masjid Ashura and Shi'a identity Ramadan and Id-ul-Fitr Evaluating the masjid, Ashura and the value of fasting

Judaism: Religious Figures and Sacred TextsJudaism

Topic overview Abraham and the covenant of circumcision Moses and the covenant of law at Sinai The Torah as a source of wisdom and authority Debates about covenant and the authority of Torah

Judaism: Key Religious ConceptsJudaism

Topic overview The nature of God and the divine attributes Humanity, the sanctity of life and the Shema The Messiah, judgement and the afterlife Debates about God, the Shema and belief in judgement

Judaism: Religious Life and Moral PrinciplesJudaism

Topic overview Diversity of views about the 613 mitzvot Tefillah, the Amidah and tzedakah The Ten Sayings as a basis for religious and ethical life Debates about mitzvot, prayer and the Ten Sayings

Judaism: Practices and Religious IdentityJudaism

Topic overview The synagogue and its place in Jewish life Pesach, redemption and Jewish identity Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur Debates about the synagogue, festivals and penitence

Buddhism: Religious Figures and Sacred TextsBuddhism

Topic overview The birth narratives and the Four Sights The Awakening of the Buddha under the Bodhi Tree The Patimokkha and the Four Parajikas Debating the Buddha's biography, Awakening and the monastic code

Buddhism: Key Religious ConceptsBuddhism

Topic overview The three lakshanas: dukkha, anicca and anatta Pratityasamutpada, karma and rebirth Arhat and bodhisattva Debating the marks of existence, rebirth and the goals of the path

Buddhism: Religious Life and Moral PrinciplesBuddhism

Topic overview The Four Noble Truths The Eightfold Path and the Middle Way The dasa sila and the lay and monastic sanghas Debating the truths, the path and the precepts

Buddhism: Practices and Religious IdentityBuddhism

Topic overview Going for refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and sangha Meditation: samatha, vipassana, metta bhavana and zazen Dana and punya Debating refuge, meditation and giving

Hinduism: Religious Figures and Sacred TextsHinduism

Topic overview The origins of Hinduism and vedic sources of authority Krishna and Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita Shruti, smriti and Hindu texts in daily life Evaluating origins, the Gita and the authority of texts

Hinduism: Key Religious ConceptsHinduism

Topic overview Brahman, atman and the nature of the self The Trimurti, cyclic time and Saguna Brahman Karma, samsara and reincarnation Evaluating Brahman, the Trimurti and karma

Hinduism: Religious Life and Moral PrinciplesHinduism

Topic overview Varnashramadharma: the four varnas and four ashramas The status of the Dalits Ahimsa, satyagraha and non-violence Evaluating duty, varna and ahimsa

Hinduism: Practices and Religious IdentityHinduism

Topic overview Puja in the home and the mandir Holi and the shaping of religious identity Durga Puja and the divine mother Evaluating puja, festivals and Durga

Sikhism: Religious Figures and Sacred TextsSikhism

Topic overview The life and teachings of Guru Nanak Guru Gobind Singh and the founding of the Khalsa The Guru Granth Sahib as living Guru Debates on the Gurus and the authority of scripture

Sikhism: Key Religious ConceptsSikhism

Topic overview The Sikh understanding of God The nature and journey of the soul Karma, rebirth and mukti Debates on God, the soul and liberation

Sikhism: Religious Life and Moral PrinciplesSikhism

Topic overview Sewa and selfless service Kirat karo, naam japo and vand chhako Sant sipahi and dharam yudh Debates on Sikh moral principles

Sikhism: Practices and Religious IdentitySikhism

Topic overview The gurdwara and the expression of Sikh identity Diwali and Bandi Chhor Divas Vaisakhi and the birth of the Khalsa Debates on the gurdwara and Sikh festivals

Ethical Thought: Divine Command, Virtue and Egoism

Topic overview Divine Command Theory and its challenges Virtue Theory, Aristotle and the Beatitudes Ethical Egoism and Max Stirner Evaluating divine command, virtue and egoism

Aquinas and Natural Law

Topic overview The four levels of law and the precepts Virtues, acts and goods in Natural Law Natural Law applied to abortion and voluntary euthanasia Evaluating Aquinas' Natural Law

Fletcher and Situation Ethics

Topic overview Fletcher's rejection of legalism and antinomianism, and the turn to agape The working principles and the fundamental principles Situation Ethics applied to homosexual and polyamorous relationships Evaluating Situation Ethics

Utilitarianism

Topic overview Bentham's Act Utilitarianism and the hedonic calculus Mill's higher pleasures, the harm principle and rules Utilitarianism applied to animal experimentation and nuclear deterrence Evaluating Utilitarianism

Inductive Arguments for the Existence of God

Topic overview The cosmological argument The teleological argument Hume's challenges and scientific alternatives Debating the inductive arguments

Deductive Arguments for the Existence of God

Topic overview Anselm's ontological argument Descartes and Malcolm Gaunilo and Kant's objections Debating the ontological argument

The Problem of Evil and Suffering

Topic overview The types and the logical problem of evil Augustinian type theodicy Irenaean type theodicy Debating the problem of evil

The Nature of Religious Experience

Topic overview Types of religious experience Mystical experience: James and Otto Challenges to religious experience Debating religious experience

Christianity: Texts, Authority and Key Figures

Topic overview The biblical canon and inspiration The early church and the kerygmata in Acts Crossan and Wright on Jesus Evaluating inspiration, the kerygmata and methods of studying Jesus

Christianity: Historical Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Christianity and secularisation in the UK Christianity and the challenge of science Pluralism, exclusivism and inclusivism Evaluating secularism, science and pluralism

Christianity: Social Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Christian attitudes towards wealth Migration and Christianity in the UK Feminist theology and the roles of men and women Evaluating wealth, migration and equality

Christianity: Movements, Change and Contemporary Issues

Topic overview The Ecumenical Movement and the World Council of Churches The Charismatic Movement and religious experience Liberation theology and responses to poverty Evaluating ecumenism, charismatic experience and liberation theology

Islam: Texts, Authority and Key Figures

Topic overview The sources of shari'a and the law schools Shari'a today, ijtihad and taqlid Greater and lesser jihad Evaluating shari'a, ijtihad and jihad

Islam: Historical Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview The Islamic state and the Constitution of Madinah Islamic teaching on creation and scientific cosmology Western perceptions of Islam and Islamophobia Evaluating Islam, democracy, science and public perception

Islam: Social Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Islamic attitudes to pluralism and conversion Family life, gender and Muslim feminism Muslims in Britain: migration, segregation and assimilation Evaluating pluralism, equality and life as a British Muslim

Islam: Movements, Change and Contemporary Issues

Topic overview Shi'a Islam: succession, imamate and distinctive practice Sufi thought and devotional practice Crime and punishment in Islamic ethics Evaluating unity, mysticism and Islamic punishment

Judaism: Texts, Authority and Key Figures

Topic overview The Talmud: Mishnah, Gemara and the two recensions Midrash, halakhah and aggadah Rashi and Maimonides as interpreters Debates about the Talmud, midrash and the commentators

Judaism: Historical Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Zionism, nationalism and the challenge of secularisation Judaism and the challenge of science Holocaust theology Debates about Zionism, science and Holocaust theology

Judaism: Social Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Reform Judaism, the Pittsburgh Platform and pluralism Family life, gender and Jewish feminism Jewish life as a minority in Britain Debates about pluralism, equality and assimilation

Judaism: Movements, Change and Contemporary Issues

Topic overview Hasidic Judaism and the Baal Shem Tov Kabbalah, the Zohar and the experience of God Embryo research and Jewish ethics Debates about Hasidism, mysticism and Jewish medical ethics

Buddhism: Texts, Authority and Key Figures

Topic overview The Pali Canon and the Tipitaka The Heart Sutra and the Parable of the Burning House The Dalai Lama and Thich Nhat Hanh Debating the Canon, the Mahayana sutras and contemporary teachers

Buddhism: Historical Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Zen, Pure Land and Nichiren in Japan Buddhism and the challenge of science Secularisation, Stephen Batchelor and David Brazier Debating Japanese Buddhism, science and the secular reading

Buddhism: Social Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Pluralism, testing the teachings and the Edicts of Ashoka Heritage and convert Buddhism in Britain Women, equality and feminist approaches Debating openness, British Buddhism and Buddhist feminism

Buddhism: Movements, Change and Contemporary Issues

Topic overview Tibetan Buddhism: mudra, mandala and mantra The Mindfulness Movement Socially Engaged Buddhism Debating Tibetan practice, mindfulness and engagement

Hinduism: Texts, Authority and Key Figures

Topic overview The Upanishads and the Katha dialogue Gandhi's religious and political contribution Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and neo-Vedanta Evaluating the Upanishads, Gandhi and Ramakrishna

Hinduism: Historical Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview The growth of ISKCON and the work of Prabhupada Hinduism, secularisation and science The purusharthas, wealth and poverty Evaluating ISKCON, secularisation and Hindu attitudes to wealth

Hinduism: Social Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Hindu pluralism, ishtadeva and other faiths Migration, minority status and Hindu identity in Britain Changing roles of men and women in Hinduism Evaluating pluralism, British Hindu identity and gender

Hinduism: Movements, Change and Contemporary Issues

Topic overview The Bhakti movement and the path of devotion Samkhya yoga and Advaita Vedanta Hindu bioethics and assisted reproduction Evaluating bhakti, philosophy and Hindu bioethics

Sikhism: Texts, Authority and Key Figures

Topic overview The Mul Mantar and the Japji Guru Arjan and the growth of the Panth Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Sikh empire Debates on Sikh texts, Gurus and empire

Sikhism: Historical Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview The aspiration for Khalistan Equality and the changing roles of men and women Sikh attitudes to other religions and worldviews Debates on persecution, gender and religious diversity

Sikhism: Social Developments in Religious Thought

Topic overview Sikhism, science and secularisation The Sikh community in Britain Miri and piri and life as a minority Debates on science, secularisation and minority life

Sikhism: Movements, Change and Contemporary Issues

Topic overview The Rahit Maryada and the Rahit Namas Naam japo, the shabads and the khands Sikhism, infertility and assisted reproduction Debates on the code of conduct, naam and bioethics

Meta-Ethics

Topic overview Naturalism, F. H. Bradley and the naturalistic fallacy Intuitionism and H. A. Prichard Emotivism and A. J. Ayer Evaluating the meta-ethical theories

Deontological Ethics: Finnis and Proportionalism

Topic overview Finnis' basic goods and the requirements of practical reasonableness Hoose and the Proportionalist debate Finnis and Proportionalism applied to immigration and capital punishment Evaluating Finnis' Natural Law and Proportionalism

Determinism and Predestination

Topic overview Augustine and Calvin on predestination Hard determinism and soft determinism Implications for moral responsibility and religious belief Evaluating determinism and predestination

Free Will and Libertarianism

Topic overview Pelagius and Arminius on free will Concepts of libertarianism Implications of free will for responsibility and religious belief Evaluating free will and libertarianism

Psychological Challenges and Atheism

Topic overview Freud on religion as illusion Jung on religion and the psyche Atheism and New Atheism Debating the psychological and atheistic challenges

Religious Experience and Miracles

Topic overview The influence of religious experience on faith and community Defining a miracle Hume and Swinburne on miracles Debating miracles and religious experience

Religious Language: Cognitive and Analogical

Topic overview The inherent problems of religious language Verification, falsification and their critics Analogy: Aquinas and Ramsey Debating meaning in religious language

Religious Language: Symbol, Myth and Language Games

Topic overview Symbol: Randall and Tillich Myth and demythologisation Language games: Wittgenstein Debating the non-cognitive approaches

New Testament: ParablesNew Testament

Topic overview Types and literary characteristics of the parables The purposes of the parables and how they are interpreted Close study of the prodigal son, the great banquet and the sower Debates about the parables and their value

New Testament: MiraclesNew Testament

Topic overview Types of miracle and the characteristics of the accounts The purpose of the miracle accounts and how they are interpreted Close study of the centurion's servant, the Gerasene demoniac and the feeding of the five thousand Debates about the miracles and their historical validity

New Testament: The Letters (1 Peter)New Testament

Topic overview Authorship, Silvanus and the readership of 1 Peter The purpose of 1 Peter and its place among the New Testament letters Close study of the set passages of 1 Peter Debates about authorship, submission and suffering in 1 Peter

New Testament: Apocalyptic LiteratureNew Testament

Topic overview Defining apocalyptic literature and its characteristics The purposes of apocalyptic writing and how Revelation is interpreted Close study of Revelation 1, 6 and 21 Debates about Revelation's genre, violence and value

Inductive Arguments for the Existence of God

4 subtopics
12 things to know
AS Unit 2

Summarise Aquinas's Fifth Way.

Key term

Summarise Hume's critique of causation.

Evaluation

Are the inductive arguments for God persuasive in the twenty-first century? Give the case against

Take Inductive Arguments for the Existence of God further

The same content, four other ways.

Questions from this topic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
What is an inductive argument?
Model answer
One whose premises make its conclusion probable rather than certain, so the conclusion could be false even if every premise is true.
2
What does a posteriori mean?
Model answer
Known from experience, so the argument begins from observation of the world rather than from the meaning of its terms.
3
Why is the cosmological argument classed as a posteriori?
Model answer
It starts from observed features of the universe — that things move, are caused and could have failed to exist — rather than from the concept of God.
4
In which work does Aquinas set out the Five Ways?
Model answer
The Summa Theologica.
5
Summarise Aquinas's First Way.
Model answer
Things in the world are in motion, whatever is moved is moved by another, an infinite regress of movers is impossible, so there must be an unmoved mover, which people call God.
6
Summarise Aquinas's Second Way.
Model answer
Everything has an efficient cause, nothing can cause itself, an infinite regress of causes is impossible, so there must be a first cause, which people call God.

See the rest and revise

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Christianity: Religious Figures and Sacred Texts

Christianity: Key Religious Concepts

Christianity: Religious Life and Moral Principles

Christianity: Practices and Religious Identity

Cram a whole paper in one sitting

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The Circle.

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Blank Blitz makes facts automatic

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AThe first blast destroys creation.

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CHumanity is gathered before God.

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Assemble a full-mark answer from its marking points, in the order an examiner wants them.

A murti is the image itself.

TrueFalse

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Spot the fault in a statement. The traps are the mistakes students actually make.

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Brain Breaks between sessions

Short focus games to reset attention, so the next set lands better than the last.