Who were the condottieri?

They were professional mercenary captains who contracted with Italian states to supply and command troops for a fixed period and fee.

How did Montefeltro embody the ideal of the soldier-scholar?

He earned a fortune as a mercenary captain and spent it on the palace at Urbino, one of the finest libraries in Italy and a court of artists and humanists, presenting himself as equally at home in arms and letters.

Why did humanists criticise mercenary armies?

They argued that men who fought for pay had no loyalty or civic virtue, prolonged wars to keep their employment, avoided decisive battle, and could turn on the states that hired them.

What alternative to mercenaries did Machiavelli propose and try to create?

He argued that a state must be defended by its own citizens, and in 1506 he organised a Florentine militia recruited from the surrounding countryside.

OCR A-Level History A H505

Y101: Alfred and the Making of England 871–1016Unit group 1

Topic overview Edward the Elder 899–924: avoidance of dynastic feuds, campaigns of Edward and Aethelflaed Edward the Elder 899–924: ‘submission’ of the Welsh kings and extent of Edward’s power in 924 Athelstan 924–939: capture of York 927, relations with Scotland and continued problems with the Vikings Athelstan 924–939: connections with the Continent and Athelstan’s legal codes Edmund 939–946, Eadred 946–955 and Edgar 957–975: return of the Vikings Edmund 939–946, Eadred 946–955 and Edgar 957–975: Edgar’s reforms Aethelred 978–1016: crisis over the new monasticism and return of the Vikings Aethelred 978–1016: legislation of Aethelred and cultural developments Enquiry: Alfred and the Vikings — Alfred’s position in 871 and return of the Vikings in the 890s Enquiry: Alfred and the governance of England — burhs, law and the revival of learning

Y102: Anglo-Saxon England and the Norman Conquest 1035–1107Unit group 1

Topic overview Anglo-Saxon England 1035–1066: England in 1035 and Edward’s upbringing Anglo-Saxon England 1035–1066: Edward’s policies, importance of the Godwin family and succession crisis William of Normandy’s invasion and the Battle of Hastings 1066: preparations, Fulford Gate, Stamford Bridge and the Norman landing William of Normandy’s invasion and the Battle of Hastings 1066: the battle of Hastings, its outcome and William’s coronation William I and the consolidation of power: William’s departure in 1067 and Harrying of the North William I and the consolidation of power: Hereward, castle building, the new elite and threats from Scotland and Scandinavia William I and the government and administration of England: Change and continuity in government William I and the government and administration of England: the Church, towns and countryside, and the Domesday survey Enquiry: William II ‘Rufus’ and the consolidation of power and government Enquiry: William II ‘Rufus’ and the Church — William’s attitude towards the Church Enquiry: The death of William II ‘Rufus’ and the succession of Henry to 1107

Y103: England 1199–1272Unit group 1

Topic overview The minority and early years of the reign of Henry III 1216–1232: Henry’s succession The minority and early years of the reign of Henry III 1216–1232: rebellion in the 1220s Henry’s rule 1232–1258: Henry’s marriage and its impact, Henry’s piety, nature of Henry’s kingship Henry’s rule 1232–1258: policy towards the Jews, problem of Crusading and the Sicilian affair Political Crisis 1258–1263: the coup of 1258 and the Provisions of Oxford Political Crisis 1258–1263: judicial inquiry and duties imposed on knights, dissension and chaos Simon de Montfort, civil war and reconstruction 1263–1272: De Montfort’s seizure of power Simon de Montfort, civil war and reconstruction 1263–1272: threat of invasion, the parliament of 1265 Enquiry: John and Normandy — securing of the Angevin inheritance, financial problems and their impact Enquiry: The Baronial Rebellion of 1215 — government 1204–1214, the rebellion of 1215 and Magna Carta Enquiry: John and the Church — John’s relationship with the English Church

Y104: England 1377–1455Unit group 1

Topic overview The reign of Henry IV: Bolingbroke’s claim, the Epiphany Rising and Glyndŵr’s revolt The reign of Henry IV: the Percy rebellions, finance, the Lollards and Henry IV’s illness The domestic rule of Henry V: restoration of order and royal authority, burning of John Badby The domestic rule of Henry V: Leicester Parliament, Southampton Plot and developments in Government War with France 1399–1453: relations with France under Henry IV, campaign of 1415 and Agincourt War with France 1399–1453: the conquest of Normandy, the Treaty of Troyes and the loss of France The minority of Henry VI and the origins of the Wars of the Roses: the minority government and the rivalry of Gloucester and Beaufort The minority of Henry VI and the origins of the Wars of the Roses: Suffolk’s fall, Cade’s Rebellion and the rise of York to 1455 Enquiry: Richard II’s minority 1377–1380 and Personal Rule 1380–1388 — England in 1377, the Peasants’ Revolt and the war with France Enquiry: Personal Rule 1380–1388, Personal Rule and overthrow 1388–1399 — favourites, the Appellants and Richard’s tyranny and overthrow

Y105: England 1445–1509: Lancastrians, Yorkists and Henry VIIUnit group 1

Topic overview Edward IV’s first rule and the crisis of 1470–1471: Edward IV’s management of the government Edward IV’s first rule and the crisis of 1470–1471: Warwick’s rebellion, the Readeption and Edward’s recovery Edward IV and Richard III 1471–1485: Edward IV’s management of government and Richard III’s accession Edward IV and Richard III 1471–1485: claim to the throne and government under Richard III Henry VII’s rule in England 1485–1509: Henry’s claim to the throne and Yorkist opposition Henry VII’s rule in England 1485–1509: relations with the nobility and administration Henry VII’s foreign policy 1485–1509: England’s position in 1485, Brittany, Étaples and Medina del Campo Henry VII’s foreign policy 1485–1509: marriage negotiations and trade agreements Enquiry: The Outbreak of the Wars 1445–1450 and The early actions of Richard, Duke of York Enquiry: War and the defeat of Richard, Duke of York — St Albans, the Parliament of Devils and York’s death

Y106: England 1485–1558: The Early TudorsUnit group 1

Topic overview The government of Henry VII and threats to his rule: Henry’s claim to the throne and Yorkist opposition The government of Henry VII and threats to his rule: relations with the nobility and administration Henry VII’s foreign policy: England’s position in Europe in 1485 and marriage negotiations Henry VII’s foreign policy: trade agreements, Scotland and the marriage alliances Henry VIII and Wolsey: Henry VIII’s personality, Wolsey’s rise and foreign policy to 1520 Henry VIII and Wolsey: aims and policies in foreign affairs to 1529, divorce and Wolsey’s fall The reign of Henry VIII after 1529: Religious change and opposition The reign of Henry VIII after 1529: rise and fall of Thomas Cromwell, foreign policy in the 1540s Enquiry: The stability of the monarchy — Edward VI’s minority, the succession crisis of 1553 and Mary’s marriage Enquiry: Religious changes, Rebellion and unrest — religious and ecclesiastical policies 1547–1558

Y107: England 1547–1603: The Later TudorsUnit group 1

Topic overview Elizabeth and religion: religious situation and problems in 1558, Puritan challenge and aims Elizabeth and religion: attitude of Elizabeth’s archbishops and problems facing Catholics 1558–1589 The nature of the Elizabethan Monarchy, Government and Parliament: role of the court and role of gender The nature of the Elizabethan Monarchy, Government and Parliament: Parliament, marriage and the succession Elizabeth’s management of financial, economic and social affairs: financial and economic situation Elizabeth’s management of financial, economic and social affairs: overseas trade, poverty and the poor laws Elizabethan later years 1588–1603: defence of the royal prerogative, economic and social problems Elizabethan later years 1588–1603: the Irish rebellion, Essex’s rebellion and the final years Enquiry: The stability of the monarchy — Edward VI’s minority, the succession crisis of 1553 and Mary’s marriage Enquiry: Religious changes, Rebellion and unrest — religious and ecclesiastical policies 1547–1558

Y108: The Early Stuarts and the Origins of the Civil War 1603–1660Unit group 1

Topic overview James I and Parliament: James I and Divine Right, James I and his financial problems James I and Parliament: foreign policy and quarrels with Parliament 1614–1624 James I and religion: the religious situation in 1603, Puritans and Arminianism James I and religion: Gunpowder Plot and impact of Catholicism on policies Charles I 1625–1640: Charles’ aims and problems in 1625, dissolution of parliament in 1629 Charles I 1625–1640: the Personal Rule, Laud and the Bishops’ Wars Charles I and the victory of Parliament 1640–1646: Short and Long Parliaments, crises of 1640–1642 Charles I and the victory of Parliament 1640–1646: Royalists and Parliamentarians Enquiry: The failure to achieve a settlement 1646–1649 — Negotiations with Charles I Enquiry: Commonwealth and Protectorate, The Restoration of Charles II — Religious and political issues

Y109: The Making of Georgian Britain 1678–c.1760Unit group 1

Topic overview The Revolutionary Settlement and politics 1689–1714: political and religious settlement 1689–1701 The Revolutionary Settlement and politics 1689–1714: Queen Anne and Union with Scotland 1707 Aspects of Politics 1714–1780: Tory eclipse, the Jacobite risings and Walpole’s rise Aspects of Politics 1714–1780: relations with George I and II, Wyvill and the County Associations Social and economic developments c.1700–1780: evangelical revival and population growth Social and economic developments c.1700–1780: financial settlement and urban unrest Foreign policy 1689–1763: William III’s foreign policy, Pitt the Elder and the Seven Years War Enquiry: The last years of Charles II 1678–1685 — England in 1678 and Anglican Church in 1685 Enquiry: James II 1685–1688 and The Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 — James’s aims and policies, William’s invasion and the settlement

Y110: From Pitt to Peel 1783–1853Unit group 1

Topic overview Pitt the Younger: royal support, the 1784 election and early reforms Pitt the Younger: reform of finance and administration, anti-radical legislation 1794–1801 Lord Liverpool and the Tories 1812–1830: Liverpool and the radical challenge 1812–1822 Lord Liverpool and the Tories 1812–1830: Huskisson on trade and finance, Roman Catholic Emancipation Foreign Policy 1783–1830: ending isolation and the wars with France to the Peninsula Foreign Policy 1783–1830: Castlereagh 1812–1822, Canning 1822–1827 Parliamentary reform and the Great Reform Act 1832: Whigs and Tory attitudes to reform 1783–1830 Parliamentary reform and the Great Reform Act 1832: the passage and terms of the Great Reform Act Enquiry: Peel and the Conservative party 1832–1846 — Peel as party leader and Anti-Corn Law League Enquiry: Peel and social reform 1832–1846 — Children, question of poverty and condition of Ireland Enquiry: Peel and pressure groups — the GNCTU, the Tolpuddle Martyrs and Chartism

Y111: Liberals, Conservatives and the Rise of Labour 1846–1918Unit group 1

Topic overview Whigs to Liberals: repeal of the Corn Laws and its impact, roles and influence of Palmerston Whigs to Liberals: impact of foreign affairs on Britain Gladstonian Liberalism: ideas and policies of Gladstonian Liberalism, appeal to different social groups Gladstonian Liberalism: the first ministry’s reforms and defeat in 1874 Disraelian Conservatism: effects of the defeat of Peel and One Nation Conservatism Disraelian Conservatism: social reform, imperial policy and defeat in 1880 Late Victorian politics: Gladstone and Salisbury until 1902 — Gladstone’s second ministry 1880–1885 Late Victorian politics: Gladstone and Salisbury until 1902 — Home Rule, Salisbury’s governments and the Boer War Enquiry: Political issues c.1900–1914 — England in 1900, Trade Unions and problems of industrial unrest Enquiry: Social issues 1900–1918 and Britain at war 1914–1918 — development of ideas of new liberalism

Y112: Britain 1900–1951Unit group 1

Topic overview British politics 1918–1929: the coupon election, the coalition’s fall and the 1923 election British politics 1918–1929: the first Labour government, Baldwin’s government and the 1929 election British domestic politics 1929–1939: the second Labour government, the National Government and extremism Economic issues 1918–1939: Post-war economic conditions and problems of the mining industry Economic issues 1918–1939: impact of the Great Depression and recovery Domestic politics 1940–1951: Churchill’s coalition, the Home Front and the Beveridge Report Domestic politics 1940–1951: the 1945 election, the Attlee governments and the elections of 1950 and 1951 Enquiry: Political issues c.1900–1914 — England in 1900, Trade Unions and problems of industrial unrest Enquiry: Social issues 1900–1918 — development of ideas of new liberalism Enquiry: Britain at war 1914–1918 — Attitudes to war and role of women in the war

Y113: Britain 1930–1997Unit group 1

Topic overview Conservative domination 1951–1964: the 1951 victory, affluence, immigration and the economy Conservative domination 1951–1964: leaders from Churchill to Douglas-Home, scandals and Labour in opposition Labour and Conservative governments 1964–1979: Labour victory 1964 and Labour party divisions Labour and Conservative governments 1964–1979: Heath’s government and Wilson and Callaghan 1974–1979 Thatcher and the end of consensus 1979–1997: election victories, monetarism, privatisation and the Right to Buy Thatcher and the end of consensus 1979–1997: the Miners’ Strike, the poll tax, Thatcher’s fall and the Major years Britain’s position in the world 1951–1997: the USA, Suez, the Cold War and the first approaches to Europe Britain’s position in the world 1951–1997: Europe, nuclear policy, the Falklands and decolonisation Enquiry: Churchill’s view of events 1929–1940 and Churchill as wartime Prime Minister Enquiry: Churchill as wartime Prime Minister, Churchill and international diplomacy 1939–1951

Y201: The Rise of Islam c.550–750Unit group 2

Topic overview The Middle East c.550–620: structure of pre-Islamic Arabia and commercial importance of Mecca The Middle East c.550–620: the rival empires, Arab military strengths and Muhammad’s Meccan years The establishment of Islam c.620–632: impact of Revelation and the hijra The beginning of the Empire and the rule of the ‘Rightly Guided Caliphs’The establishment and expansion of the Umayyad Empire: rule of Mu’awiya and Second Fitna of 680 The establishment and expansion of the Umayyad Empire: ‘Abd al-Malik’s reforms, expansion and the fall of the Umayyads

Y202: Charlemagne 768–814Unit group 2

Topic overview War and conquest: Situation in the Frankish lands and wars against the Saxons War and conquest: later campaigns, methods of warfare and reasons for success Administration and internal affairs: Aims and methods of control and organisation, economic policies Administration and internal affairs: importance of the Church to effective government The Carolingian Renaissance: motives for patronage, minuscule, chant and the schools The Carolingian Renaissance: work of scholars and extent of a cultural revival Later kingship and imperial rule: Leo III and the imperial coronation of 800 Later kingship and imperial rule: relations with Byzantium and consolidation or decline in later years

Y203: The Crusades and the Crusader States 1095–1192Unit group 2

Topic overview The First Crusade: situation in Western Europe, Urban II’s aims and appeal at Clermont The First Crusade: motives of Crusaders, capture of Edessa, Antioch and Jerusalem The Crusader States in the 12th Century: Establishment, problems of succession and internal rivalries The Crusader States in the 12th Century: manpower, castles, the military orders and finance The Second Crusade: Zengi, the fall of Edessa and the call to crusade The Second Crusade: events in Anatolia, Antioch, Acre and impact of the failure of the Second Crusade The Third Crusade: development of the idea of Jihad, Zengi, Nur ad Din and Saladin, problems in Outremer The Third Crusade: reasons for the failure and consequences of the Third Crusade for the West

Y204: Genghis Khan and the Explosion From the Steppes c.1167–1405Unit group 2

Topic overview Genghis Khan and the Creation of the Mongol Empire c.1167–1264: steppe society, the rise of Genghis Khan and the Mongol conquests The Reign of Khubilai Khan 1264–1294: Consolidation of rule and control of China The Reign of Khubilai Khan 1264–1294: law, religion, court life and campaigns abroad The Khanates 1294–1405: Nature of Mongol rule 1294–1405, disunity and reasons for decline The Khanates 1294–1405: Tokhtamysh, rise of Tamerlane and his impact in Persia Impact of the Mongol invasions and interaction between East and West to 1405: the Pax Mongolica, trade and the exchange of knowledge Impact of the Mongol invasions and interaction between East and West to 1405: the Black Death, travellers and ideological impact

Y205: Exploration, Encounters and Empire 1445–1570Unit group 2

Topic overview Exploration: Reasons why this was an age of exploration and motives for patronage Exploration: explorers, their routes and the difficulties they faced Encounters and conquest: Treaty of Tordesillas and Portuguese conquest Encounters and conquest: Spanish Conquests, gains and losses for individual explorers Settlement and consequences: Portuguese trading posts, Brazil and Spanish settlement Settlement and consequences: colonial government and the effects on indigenous peoples Impact of overseas empire on Europe: bullion, the price revolution and European trade Impact of overseas empire on Europe: slave trades, balance sheet of personal and national benefits

Y206: Spain 1469–1556Unit group 2

Topic overview Isabella and Ferdinand: government — situation in Spain in 1469, control of the nobility and towns Isabella and Ferdinand: government — law and order, finance, the union of the crowns and Spain in 1516 Isabella and Ferdinand: religion — religious aims and the conquest of Granada Isabella and Ferdinand: religion — treatment of the Moriscos and Conversos, Inquisition and its impact Charles I: government and religion — succession, relations with the Spanish nobility and towns Charles I: government and religion — religious developments and Charles’s abdication Overseas policies and the economy: Columbus and the discovery and explorations Overseas policies and the economy: economic impact of the New World and foreign policy

Y207: The German Reformation and the Rule of Charles v 1500–1559Unit group 2

Topic overview The German Reformation 1517–1529: Charles V’s inheritance, the Church and Luther’s challenge The German Reformation 1517–1529: Papal excommunication and situation in 1529 The spread of Lutheranism 1530–1555, the Schmalkaldic War and Peace of Augsburg: the Augsburg Confession and Lutheran growth The spread of Lutheranism 1530–1555, the Schmalkaldic War and Peace of Augsburg: the Schmalkaldic War, the Interim and the Peace of Augsburg Charles V’s relations with the Ottoman Empire: Hungary, Vienna, the Mediterranean and the French alliance Charles V’s wars with France: the Habsburg-Valois wars from Pavia to Cateau-Cambrésis

Y208: Philip II 1556–1598Unit group 2

Topic overview Political authority: Legacy of Charles I and condition of Spain Political authority: faction, justice, revolts and finance Religion: Philip II’s inheritance and relations with the Papacy Religion: attitude towards the Tridentine decrees, moral and spiritual impact of the Inquisition Foreign policy: foreign situation in 1555, Holy League and the Battle of Lepanto Foreign policy: relations with England, France, Portugal and Philip’s reputation abroad The Netherlands: origins of the revolt and its course to 1576 The Netherlands: religion, reasons for Spain’s failure to crush the revolt and situation in 1598

Y209: African Kingdoms c.1400–c.1800: Four Case StudiesUnit group 2

Topic overview The Songhay Empire c.1450–1591: the Sahel c.1450, Sonni Ali and Askia Muhammad The Songhay Empire c.1450–1591: importance of Timbuktu and reasons for decline The Kingdom of Kongo c.1400–c.1709: the kingdom c.1400, conversion and royal power The Kingdom of Kongo c.1400–c.1709: clientage, wars with Portugal and the Antonian movement The Kingdom of Benin c.1500–c.1750: the obas, government, culture, trade and decline The Kingdoms and Empires of Oyo and Dahomey 1608–c.1800: the rise of Oyo and Dahomey, their armies and their kings The Kingdoms and Empires of Oyo and Dahomey 1608–c.1800: institutions, religion, the slave trade and decline

Y210: Russia 1645–1741Unit group 2

Topic overview Russia 1645–1698: Russia in 1645, personality and rule of Alexis Russia 1645–1698: Feodor, Sophia’s regency and Peter’s early reign The reforms of Peter the Great 1698–1725: consolidation of power, social change and government reform The reforms of Peter the Great 1698–1725: taxation, the Church, the armed forces, the economy and St Petersburg Foreign Relations 1645–1725: Ukraine, Poland, the Crimea, China and the Northern War to 1704 Foreign Relations 1645–1725: the Swedish invasion, Poltava, Nystadt and the Persian campaign Opposition and reaction 1645–1741: Revolt of Stenka Razin and Old Believers Opposition and reaction 1645–1741: provincial revolts, Tsarevitch Alexis and the reigns after Peter

Y211: The Rise and Decline of the Mughal Empire in India 1526–1739Unit group 2

Topic overview The foundation of the Mughal Empire and its rulers 1526–1556: Babur’s conquest of India The foundation of the Mughal Empire and its rulers 1526–1556: wars and instability under Humayun Akbar the Great 1556–1605: accession of Akbar, relations with the Rajput kingdoms and religious policy Akbar the Great 1556–1605: religion, administration, expansion and culture Jahangir and Shah Jahan 1605–1658: Jahangir, Shah Jahan and the triumph of Aurangzeb Rule and decline 1658–1739: Aurangzeb’s rule, religious policy and the Maratha wars Rule and decline 1658–1739: administrative reforms and the growth of revenue, weak leaders after 1707

Y212: The American Revolution 1740–1796Unit group 2

Topic overview The development of British hegemony in America: the colonies in 1740, their economies, government and Native relations The development of British hegemony in America: territorial expansion to 1765 Causes of the American Revolution: relationship between Britain and the colonies Causes of the American Revolution: Tea Act and response, colonial and political ideas The American Revolution 1774–1783: move towards independence 1774–1776 The American Revolution 1774–1783: Saratoga, the French alliance, Yorktown and the Peace of Paris The early Republic 1783–1796: the Confederation, the Constitution and Washington’s presidency

Y213: The French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon 1774–1815Unit group 2

Topic overview The causes of the French Revolution from 1774 and the events of 1789: the Ancien Régime, Louis XVI and the financial crisis The causes of the French Revolution from 1774 and the events of 1789: the Enlightenment, social grievances and the revolution of 1789 The Revolution from October 1789 to the Directory 1795: attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy The Revolution from October 1789 to the Directory 1795: the fall of the monarchy, the Terror and Thermidor Napoleon Bonaparte to 1807: career of Bonaparte to 1799, military leadership and reasons for success Napoleon Bonaparte to 1807: Napoleon’s reforms as Consul, nature of and reasons for military successes The decline and fall of Napoleon 1807–1815: the Continental System, the Peninsular War and Russia The decline and fall of Napoleon 1807–1815: rule in France after 1807 and the fall of the Empire

Y214: France 1814–1870Unit group 2

Topic overview The reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X 1814–1830: the legacy of 1789, the Charter and Louis XVIII’s reign The reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X 1814–1830: domestic and foreign policies of Charles X The reign of Louis Philippe and the 1848 Revolution: Personality of Louis Philippe and foreign policy The reign of Louis Philippe and the 1848 Revolution: Guizot and establishment of the Second Republic Domestic policy under Louis Napoleon: Election of Louis Napoleon, economic and social policies Domestic policy under Louis Napoleon: the economy, the rebuilding of Paris, reform and the liberal empire Foreign and imperial policy 1848–1870: Napoleon’s aims and ideas, Crimean War Foreign and imperial policy 1848–1870: Italy, Mexico, Prussia and the war of 1870

Y215: Italy and Unification 1789–1896Unit group 2

Topic overview Italy 1789–1847: Italy in 1789, Napoleonic rule and the Vienna Settlement Italy 1789–1847: Carbonari, revolutions of 1820–1821 and 1831, extent of support for nationalism The Revolutions of 1848–1849 and their aftermath: the revolutions of 1848 and the war with Austria The Revolutions of 1848–1849 and their aftermath: the failure of the revolutions and Piedmont after 1849 The Risorgimento and the establishment of a new Kingdom of Italy 1850–1861: Cavour, Plombières and the war of 1859 The Risorgimento and the establishment of a new Kingdom of Italy 1850–1861: Garibaldi and the new kingdom Italy 1861–1896: Piedmontisation 1861–1870, Brigands’ War and the policies of the new Italy Italy 1861–1896: Rome, the south, Crispi and colonial expansion

Y216: The USA in the 19th Century: Westward Expansion and Civil War 1803–c.1890Unit group 2

Topic overview Westward expansion; causes and impacts: territorial growth, settlement and the development of the West Native Americans: Native American society, Tecumseh and Indian Removal Native Americans: treaties and the ‘Indian Wars’ of 1860s/70s, resources, reasons for destruction The growth of sectional tension 1850–1861: Main differences between North and South by 1850 The growth of sectional tension 1850–1861: Republicans, Dred Scott, the 1860 election and secession The Civil War: Lincoln and the Union, Davis and Confederacy The Civil War: reasons for Union victory and naval blockade, international situation

Y217: Japan 1853–1937Unit group 2

Topic overview The impact of foreign intrusion on Tokugawa Japan 1853–1868: Tokugawa society, Perry and the unequal treaties The impact of foreign intrusion on Tokugawa Japan 1853–1868: resistance to the Shogunate and civil war Westernisation and nationalism in Meiji Japan 1868–1912: the end of samurai power and early Meiji reforms Westernisation and nationalism in Meiji Japan 1868–1912: the 1889 Constitution, industrialisation and education Foreign relations and overseas expansion 1868–1920: population pressure, early expansion and the Sino-Japanese War Foreign relations and overseas expansion 1868–1920: the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, war with Russia and the First World War The growth of nationalism in Japan 1920–1937: Radicalism and repression in post-war Japan The growth of nationalism in Japan 1920–1937: the Depression, Manchuria and the rise of the army

Y218: International Relations 1890–1941Unit group 2

Topic overview The causes and nature of the First World War: long-term causes, pre-war crises and the July Crisis The causes and nature of the First World War: the nature of the fighting and reasons for the outcome The Paris Peace Conference, the League of Nations, and international diplomacy 1919–1935: the peace treaties of 1919–1920 The Paris Peace Conference, the League of Nations, and international diplomacy 1919–1935: the League of Nations and diplomacy to 1935 Dictators and Appeasers in Europe 1929–1941: the Depression, Mussolini and appeasement Dictators and Appeasers in Europe 1929–1941: Spain, the Nazi-Soviet Pact and the war to 1941 The Far East 1918–1941: Japan after Versailles and the Manchurian Crisis The Far East 1918–1941: the war with China and the road to Pearl Harbor

Y219: Russia 1894–1941Unit group 2

Topic overview The rule of Tsar Nicholas II: Nicholas II, Russia in 1894 and the opposition The rule of Tsar Nicholas II: Witte, the 1905 Revolution, the Dumas and Stolypin The 1917 Revolutions: impact of the First World War 1914–1917 and events of March 1917 The 1917 Revolutions: return of exiles and the April Theses, roles of Lenin and Trotsky The Civil War and Lenin: Constituent Assembly, Lenin decrees and Civil War The Civil War and Lenin: the Red Terror, Kronstadt, the NEP and Lenin as leader The rule of Stalin: Stalin’s character and rise to power The rule of Stalin: the purges, collectivisation and the Five Year Plans

Y220: Italy 1896–1943Unit group 2

Topic overview Italy 1896–1915: Italy in 1896, industrial growth and its consequences Italy 1896–1915: Giolitti’s ministries, foreign policy and the growing demand for war Italy 1915–1925: Early neutrality and subsequent entry into war, weaknesses of the post-war governments Italy 1915–1925: electoral pact 1921 and the March on Rome, Acerbo law and the murder of Matteotti Fascist Italy 1925–1943: the Corporate State, propaganda, the Lateran Pacts and the lira Fascist Italy 1925–1943: industrial policy, social policy, preparations for and domestic impact of war Foreign Policy of Mussolini 1922–1943: aims, early diplomacy and the Abyssinian War Foreign Policy of Mussolini 1922–1943: Spanish Civil War, allied invasion and fall of Mussolini

Y221: Democracy and Dictatorships in Germany 1919–1963Unit group 2

Topic overview The establishment and development of the Weimar Republic: 1919–Jan 1933 — early crises, hyperinflation and recovery The establishment and development of the Weimar Republic: 1919–Jan 1933 — the Stresemann years, the Depression and Hitler’s appointment The establishment of the Nazi Dictatorship and its domestic policies Feb 1933–1939 — seizing and holding power The establishment of the Nazi Dictatorship and its domestic policies Feb 1933–1939 — opposition, the economy, society and racial policy The impact of war and defeat on Germany: 1939–1949 — war economy and Total War, morale and rationing The impact of war and defeat on Germany: 1939–1949 — resistance, defeat, occupation and the Berlin Blockade Divided Germany: The Federal Republic and the DDR 1949–1963 — Basic Law and constitution of West Germany Divided Germany: The Federal Republic and the DDR 1949–1963 — Adenauer’s foreign policy, elections, rearmament and the DDR

Y222: The Cold War in Asia 1945–1993Unit group 2

Topic overview Western Policies in Post War Asia 1945–1979: Yalta, Potsdam, Japan, China, Taiwan and Malaya The Korean War 1950–1953 and its impact to 1977: Causes and outbreak of the Korean War The Korean War 1950–1953 and its impact to 1977: causes of stalemate 1951–1953 and non alignment Indochina 1945–1967: French colonial government in Indochina and Eisenhower’s policies towards Indochina Indochina 1945–1967: Diem’s government of South Vietnam and start of Operation Rolling Thunder Wars in Vietnam and Cambodia 1968–1993: American strategy, Tet, Vietnamization and the Paris Accords Wars in Vietnam and Cambodia 1968–1993: the fall of Saigon and the Cambodian conflict

Y223: The Cold War in Europe 1941–1995Unit group 2

Topic overview The origins of the Cold War to 1945: situation in 1941 and wartime tensions in the Grand Alliance The origins of the Cold War to 1945: the wartime conferences and the breakdown of the alliance The development of the Cold War 1946–1955: ‘Iron Curtain’ speech, Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid The development of the Cold War 1946–1955: Cominform and Comecon, conflicts over Germany, atomic weapons The Cold War 1956–1984: Hungary, the Prague Spring and Poland The Cold War 1956–1984: Berlin, the arms race, détente and the new Cold War The end of the Cold War 1984–1995: Soviet decline, Gorbachev and the end of communism

Y224: Apartheid and Reconciliation: South African Politics 1948–1999Unit group 2

Topic overview Establishing Apartheid: South Africa before 1948, the 1948 election and racial classification Establishing Apartheid: the apartheid laws and early opposition The development of Apartheid and growing resistance: Verwoerd, Vorster, the homelands and apartheid’s effects The development of Apartheid and growing resistance: Sharpeville, armed struggle, Black Consciousness and Soweto The collapse of Apartheid 1978–1989: the state in 1978 and Botha’s Total Strategy The collapse of Apartheid 1978–1989: nature and development of opposition, importance of FW de Klerk A New South Africa 1989–1999: negotiations, the 1994 election and the Government of National Unity A New South Africa 1989–1999: the RDP, the 1996 constitution and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission

Y301: The Early Anglo-Saxons c.400–800Unit group 3

Topic overview The development of Kingship and kingdoms in Britain and Ireland: the first Saxons, early kingdoms and overkingship The development of Kingship and kingdoms in Britain and Ireland: the heptarchy, royal government and the rise of Northumbria and Mercia Religion and the Christian Church in Britain and Ireland: paganism, the Gregorian mission and Irish Christianity Religion and the Christian Church in Britain and Ireland: Whitby, Theodore, the monasteries and missions abroad Economic and social life in Britain and Ireland: Rural and urban settlements Economic and social life in Britain and Ireland: trade, coinage, society, law and burial Cultural change in Britain and Ireland: Language, religious artefacts, art and literature Depth study: Athelbald, Offa and the Mercian supremacy — Mercian supremacy as a turning point Depth study: Augustine and the process of Christianisation — short and long-term impact Depth study: Augustine and the process of Christianisation — Synod of Whitby as a possible turning point Depth study: Communities and kinship — communities, kinship, identity and dispute settlement

Y302: The Viking Age c.790–1066Unit group 3

Topic overview Viking society, administration and livelihood: Viking identity and Scandinavian administration Viking society, administration and livelihood: royal power and Scandinavian livelihood Warfare and raids: early raids on England and Scotland and Alfred’s response Warfare and raids: Athelstan, the second Viking age and expansion abroad Settlements: Scandinavian rural and urban settlements, English rural and urban settlements, Danelaw Settlements: kingship, move towards a united English kingdom, settlements in Western and Eastern Europe Culture and religion: old religion and new religion Culture and religion: culture, poetry and its purpose, sagas, feasting Depth study: Raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries — motives, success and impact of the raids Depth study: Raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries — significance of the 860s Depth study: The Danelaw — Definitions, origins, organisation and growth Depth study: The Danelaw — response from Anglo-Saxons and importance of York Depth study: The Vikings in Ireland — Motives for raiding, trading and settlement Depth study: The Vikings in Ireland — Clontarf and the impact on the Irish economy and Church

Y303: English Government and the Church 1066–1216Unit group 3

Topic overview Main features of central government: the household, Exchequer, chancery and justiciar Main features of central government: role and power of the Crown, reasons for rebellion and its impact The organisation and administration of local government: sheriffs, local courts and the growth of the Common Law The government of the Church in England: the primacy dispute and the Church courts The government of the Church in England: administrative structures and role of monasticism The role of the archbishops of Canterbury: relationship with the Crown and the Papacy Depth study: The reign of Henry I — personality of Henry I and role of Roger of Salisbury Depth study: The reign of Henry I — local justice and government, Henry I and the Papacy Depth study: The Civil War 1139–1154 — Causes of rebellion and civil war, extent of disturbances Depth study: The Civil War 1139–1154 — central government, the earldoms and the Church Depth study: The reign of Richard I in England — Finances and William Longchamp Depth study: The reign of Richard I in England — government in the absence of Richard

Y304: The Church and Medieval Heresy c.1100–1437Unit group 3

Topic overview The causes and nature of the heretical movements: condition of the medieval Church The causes and nature of the heretical movements: strategy and organisation of the movements Support for heretical movements: Nature of the support Support for heretical movements: leadership, contrasting aims and reasons for failure The impact of heretical movements upon the medieval Church: response of the medieval church Maintenance of church authority: Propaganda produced against heresy and punishments Maintenance of church authority: popular support for the Catholic Church and Medieval Inquisition Depth study: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420 — Wycliffe’s views and writings Depth study: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420 — responses to Wycliffe’s writings and preaching Depth study: The Mendicant Orders — St Dominic and his approach to the Cathars Depth study: The Mendicant Orders — St Francis and impact of the Mendicant Orders on the towns Depth study: Huss and the Hussites 1400–1436 — Hus, the influence of Wycliffe and the Council of Constance Depth study: Huss and the Hussites 1400–1436 — the Hussite revolution, wars and settlement

Y305: The Renaissance c.1400–c.1600Unit group 3

Topic overview Artistic and cultural development: cultural conditions in western Europe c.1400 Artistic and cultural development: High Renaissance and continuity with the Middle Ages The role of the individual: contributions to the Renaissance The role of the individual: humanist writers and artists from Brunelleschi to Dürer Religion and religious change: condition of the Church, Christianity and the Renaissance Religion and religious change: anti-clericalism and impact of the Renaissance on church music The Impact of War: the condottieri and the invasion of 1494 The Impact of War: the Sack of Rome, new warfare and Machiavelli Depth study: The Venetian Renaissance — condition of Venice in c.1400 Depth study: The Venetian Renaissance — artistic development in Venice and impact of war on Venice Depth study: Savonarola — Savonarola as a preacher and Florence under Savonarola Depth study: Savonarola — fall of Savonarola Depth study: The French Renaissance — Reasons for the development of the Renaissance Depth study: The French Renaissance — impact of da Vinci and impact of the Italian Wars

Y306: Rebellion and Disorder Under the Tudors 1485–1603Unit group 3

Topic overview The main causes of rebellion and disorder: Political factions, succession and taxation The main causes of rebellion and disorder: famine and motives of the rebels The frequency and nature of disturbances: Location and regional variations The frequency and nature of disturbances: support, leadership, tactics and reasons for failure The impact of the disturbances upon Tudor governments: response to the threat of disorder at the time The impact of the disturbances upon Tudor governments: impact of rebellion on government and society The maintenance of political stability: role of local and central authorities The maintenance of political stability: local officers and popular attitudes to authority Depth study: Pilgrimage of Grace — Causes and regional variations Depth study: Pilgrimage of Grace — leadership, support, suppression and significance Depth study: The Western Rebellion — Causes, regional variations between Devon and Cornwall Depth study: The Western Rebellion — demands, defeat and significance Depth study: Tyrone’s Rebellion — Causes, objectives and support Depth study: Tyrone’s Rebellion — leadership and threat posed by the rebellion to the government

Y307: Tudor Foreign Policy 1485–1603Unit group 3

Topic overview The aims and methods of Tudor foreign policy: aims, methods and constraints Scotland and France: Étaples, Ayton, Flodden and the rough wooing Scotland and France: Treaty of Edinburgh, French threat under Somerset and Treaty of Blois Burgundy, the Netherlands and Spain: Henry VII and Medina del Campo, impact of the divorce Burgundy, the Netherlands and Spain: Mary Tudor and Philip’s marriage, Armada The impact of foreign relations on domestic developments in England: trade, war finance, parliament and religion The impact of foreign relations on domestic developments in England: Mary Queen of Scots, Ireland and the political cost of failure Depth study: Henry VIII’s foreign policy 1509–1520 — the situation in 1509, Henry’s motives and the wars of 1512–1513 Depth study: Henry VIII’s foreign policy 1509–1520 — the campaigns of 1513, the peace of 1514 and the Treaty of London Depth study: The loss of Calais — historical and strategic significance of Calais Depth study: The loss of Calais — reasons why Calais was lost Depth study: The Armada — Long and short-term causes and motives, Spanish fleet and its setbacks Depth study: The Armada — Elizabeth’s preparations and reasons for the defeat of the Armada

Y308: The Catholic Reformation 1492–1610Unit group 3

Topic overview The nature of the Catholic Reformation: condition of the Catholic Church in the 1490s The nature of the Catholic Reformation: early reform and the Catholic or Counter Reformation debate Institutional reforms: role of the Papacy, Inquisition and Councils Institutional reforms: Society of Jesus, new and traditional orders, Ursulines and Theatines Role of individuals: Erasmus, the popes, Loyola and the saints Impact of the Catholic Reformation: Comparative extent of reform and revival Impact of the Catholic Reformation: obstacles, popular religion, art and achievement Depth study: Council of Trent — the call for a council, its sessions and decrees Depth study: Philip II of Spain — the Inquisition, conversos, Moriscos and the Protestant scare Depth study: Philip II of Spain — humanism, illuminism and Philip’s religious policy Depth study: St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre — the Huguenots and the road to the massacre Depth study: St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre — motives, the killing and its consequences

Y309: The Ascendancy of the Ottoman Empire 1453–1606Unit group 3

Topic overview Sultans and the organisation of the State: Sultans and their accessions, army Sultans and the organisation of the State: central political system, finances and the economy Imperial expansion: Reasons for expansion and expansion in the Balkans Imperial expansion: expansion in the Mediterranean, lack of resistance and weaknesses Consolidation, provincial administration and society in Ottoman vassal states: conquest, vassals, the timar and society Consolidation, provincial administration and society in Ottoman vassal states: religious minorities, provincial government and taxation The impact of Ottoman expansion on European rulers: Impact on Spain and impact on France The impact of Ottoman expansion on European rulers: the alliance, the Habsburgs, Venice and Lepanto Depth study: The Fall of Constantinople 1453 — the Byzantine Empire, Mehmed II and preparations for the siege Depth study: The Fall of Constantinople 1453 — the siege, the fall and its significance Depth study: The Battle of Mohács 1526 — condition of Hungary in 1526 Depth study: The Battle of Mohács 1526 — the battle and its consequences Depth study: The Battle of Lepanto 1571 — situation, course of the Battle and its significance Depth study: The Battle of Lepanto 1571 — reasons for the Ottoman defeat

Y310: The Development of the Nation State: France 1498–1610Unit group 3

Topic overview The Monarchy and central government: royal authority, central institutions and the crisis of the crown Law, provincial government and society: development of language, taxation and privileges Law, provincial government and society: extent of royal control of the provinces Religion and the Church: the Concordat of Bologna, Gallicanism and early reform Religion and the Church: extent of religious disunity The impact of wars on French stability and unification: Habsburg-Valois Wars 1498–1559 The impact of wars on French stability and unification: French Wars of Religion 1562–1598 Depth study: Francis I and ‘Renaissance Monarchy’ — Powers as monarch and relations with the Church Depth study: Francis I and ‘Renaissance Monarchy’ — financial weaknesses and Fontainebleau Depth study: The Massacre of St Bartholomew 1572 — Causes, role of Catherine de’ Medici and the Guise Depth study: The Massacre of St Bartholomew 1572 — atrocities and their spread to the provinces Depth study: Henry IV — the Navarre inheritance, the succession war and peace with Spain Depth study: Henry IV — Edict of Nantes, acceptance of the Jesuits, assassination and legacy to his heir

Y311: The Origins and Growth of the British Empire 1558–1783Unit group 3

Topic overview Drivers of imperial expansion: the Crown, the adventurers and the search for trade Drivers of imperial expansion: contribution of domestic developments to empire, successes and failures The nature of colonial rule: mercantilism, companies, plantations and colonial government The impact of Empire on Britain and its emerging colonies: For Britain The impact of Empire on Britain and its emerging colonies: for colonies The British Empire and European Relations: consequences of European alliances and rivalries Depth study: Elizabethan Privateers 1558–1603 — Nature and extent of privateering, motives Depth study: Elizabethan Privateers 1558–1603 — attitudes, consequences and interpretations Depth study: Britain and its American colonies 1660–1713 — Restoration policy and the Dominion of New England Depth study: Britain and its American colonies 1660–1713 — colonial rebellions, wars and assemblies Depth study: Clive and the East India Company: India c.1730–1773 — the Carnatic Wars and Plassey Depth study: Clive and the East India Company: India c.1730–1773 — Buxar, the diwani and the Regulating Act

Y312: Popular Culture and the Witchcraze of the 16th and 17th CenturiesUnit group 3

Topic overview Popular culture: popular and elite culture, their definitions Popular culture: public humiliation, role of magic in society and social control The main reasons for the growth and decline in the persecution of witches: demonology, confessional strife and village tensions The main reasons for the growth and decline in the persecution of witches: war, plague, scepticism and decline The persecuted: geography of the Witchcraze in Europe The persecuted: town and country, religion, gender, age and status Responses of the authorities to witchcraft: Legal developments Responses of the authorities to witchcraft: English methods, the Inquisitions and the end of prosecution Depth study: The Witchcraze in Southern Germany c.1590–1630 — the great hunts and their prince-bishops Depth study: The Witchcraze in Southern Germany c.1590–1630 — belief, crisis, the course of the hunts and their checking Depth study: Hopkins and the witch hunt of 1645–1647 — the hunt, Hopkins’s methods and why it happened Depth study: Hopkins and the witch hunt of 1645–1647 — context, critics and the end of the hunt Depth study: The Salem witch trials — the crisis of 1692 and the accusations Depth study: The Salem witch trials — executions, interpretations and the end of the trials

Y313: The Ascendancy of France 1610–1715Unit group 3

Topic overview The development of absolute monarchy and the role of ministers: absolutist theory, regencies and chief ministers The development of absolute monarchy and the role of ministers: ministers, intendants, taxation and privilege Religious developments: ‘Most Christian King’, relations with the Jesuits and Catholic Orders Religious developments: relations with the Huguenots, significance of Jansenism and royal reactions Social developments and opposition: the social order, noble conspiracies and peasant revolts France as an international power: aims and the struggle with the Habsburgs to 1659 France as an international power: the wars of Louis XIV and the Treaty of Utrecht Depth study: Richelieu’s relations with the French court and nobility — extent of his authority Depth study: Richelieu’s relations with the French court and nobility — statesmanship Depth study: The Fronde 1648–1653 — causes of the Fronde and French defeat at Lens Depth study: The Fronde 1648–1653 — the Fronde of the princes, failure and interpretations Depth study: Versailles and image-making — cultural impact and political significance of Versailles Depth study: Versailles and image-making — cost, criticism and image-making

Y314: The Challenge of German Nationalism 1789–1919Unit group 3

Topic overview Social and intellectual forces: origins and growth of German nationalism Social and intellectual forces: repression, rival visions of unity and nationalism after 1871 Economic forces: Economic nationalism and modernisation, Zollverein, economic integration Economic forces: economic and social effects of industrialisation Political and military forces: Managing German nationalism and its opponents Political and military forces: role of warfare in uniting Germany The extent of Unification: the Reich of 1871, its divisions and national unity Depth study: 1848/1849 Revolutions — causes of revolution and the Frankfurt Parliament Depth study: 1848/1849 Revolutions — failure, support and interpretations Depth study: Nationalism and Unification 1867–1871 — the Confederation and the war of 1870 Depth study: Nationalism and Unification 1867–1871 — consequences of the war Depth study: Wilhelmine Germany and the growth of Nationalism 1884–1914 — Wilhelm II, Weltpolitik and the navy Depth study: Wilhelmine Germany and the growth of Nationalism 1884–1914 — the army, domestic politics and the July crisis

Y315: The Changing Nature of Warfare 1792–1945Unit group 3

Topic overview The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war: Generalship and its impact The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war: concept of ‘Total War’The impact of technological change: Industrialisation and technology The impact of technological change: development of weaponry Planning and preparation: general staffs, army organisation and war plans Planning and preparation: alliances, staff work and the limits of planning The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare: organisation of the state for war Depth study: The French Revolutionary Wars 1792–1802 — Generalship and developments in weaponry Depth study: The French Revolutionary Wars 1792–1802 — coalitions, conscription and interpretations Depth study: The American Civil War 1861–1865 — resources, weapons, railways and manpower Depth study: The American Civil War 1861–1865 — Grant, Atlanta and interpretations Depth study: The Western Front and the First World War 1914–1918 — trench deadlock, offensives and tactical change Depth study: The Western Front and the First World War 1914–1918 — total war, alliances and interpretations

Y316: Britain and Ireland 1791–1921Unit group 3

Topic overview Opposition to the Union: revolutionary, cultural and constitutional nationalism Support for the Union: the decline of the Ascendancy and the rise of Unionism Support for the Union: Conservatives, churches, Ulster and unionist leaders The Union and reform: creation of the Act of Union, Home Rule and Partition The Irish economy and the link to Irish Nationalism: Agrarian under-development The Irish economy and the link to Irish Nationalism: the Land War, Ulster industry and the economic case Depth study: Irish Rebellions and British Responses 1791–1803 — Grattan’s Parliament to Bantry Bay Depth study: Irish Rebellions and British Responses 1791–1803 — the 1798 rising, the Act of Union and Emmet Depth study: O’Connell and British Governments 1823–1841 — strategies of the Roman Catholic Association Depth study: O’Connell and British Governments 1823–1841 — the Tithe War, the Whig alliance and assessments of O’Connell Depth study: The Crisis over Home Rule 1908–1914 — Home Rule Bill of 1912 Depth study: The Crisis over Home Rule 1908–1914 — the outcome in 1914 and interpretations

Y317: China and Its Rulers 1839–1989Unit group 3

Topic overview The government and rulers of China 1839–1989: Manchu rule, the Taiping and late Qing reform The government and rulers of China 1839–1989: the 1911 Revolution, the Republic, Mao and Deng The economy of China 1839–1989: Chinese economy in 1839 and Land reform under Communism The economy of China 1839–1989: Five Year Plans, the Great Leap Forward and reform after 1976 Society in China 1839–1989: Society in China under Manchu rule and Boxers Society in China 1839–1989: social developments after 1911 and rise of the middle class China and the wider world: Foreign influence in Manchu China China and the wider world: Japan, the Cold War and relations with the powers Depth study: The First Opium War and its impact — China and the Western powers by 1839 Depth study: The First Opium War and its impact — outbreak and nature of war Depth study: The Boxer Uprising — causes, the siege and consequences for the Qing Depth study: The Cultural Revolution — impact of the failure of the Great Leap Forward Depth study: The Cultural Revolution — changes in Politburo 1966 and effects of the Cultural Revolution

Y318: Russia and Its Rulers 1855–1964Unit group 3

Topic overview The nature of government: Autocracy, methods of repression and enforcement The nature of government: extent and impact of reform, attitude of the Tsars, extent of political change The impact of dictatorial regimes on the economy and society of Russia and the USSR Impact of war and revolution on the development of Russia and the USSR The impact of Russia and the USSR on nationalities and satellite states: Poland, Asia, Russification and the Jews The impact of Russia and the USSR on nationalities and satellite states: Finland, the Baltic, Soviet nationalities and satellites Depth study: Alexander II’s domestic reforms — the Crimean War, the great reforms and their limits Depth study: The Provisional Government — formation, reforms and living conditions in 1917 Depth study: The Provisional Government — the crises of 1917 and the government’s fall Depth study: Khrushchev in power 1956–1964 — aims, de-Stalinisation and reform Depth study: Khrushchev in power 1956–1964 — opposition and Khrushchev’s fall

Y319: Civil Rights in the USA 1865–1992Unit group 3

Topic overview African Americans: position in 1865 and Civil Rights Movement to 1992 Trade Union and Labour Rights: unions from 1865 to the 1890s Trade Union and Labour Rights: the World Wars, the New Deal and the Reagan era Native American Indians: position in 1865, impact of the Plains Wars and impact of the Dawes Act 1887 Native American Indians: Native Americans and the Supreme Court, Native American pressure groups Women: position in 1865, temperance and the suffrage campaign Women: New Deal, rise of feminism and its opponents, changing economic and employment opportunities Depth study: Civil rights in the ‘Gilded Age’ c.1875–c.1895 — Nature and extent of progress Depth study: Civil rights in the ‘Gilded Age’ c.1875–c.1895 — Westward Expansion, sectional divides and Populism Depth study: The New Deal and civil rights — minorities, women and workers under Roosevelt Depth study: Malcolm X and Black Power — Malcolm X as a civil rights leader Depth study: Malcolm X and Black Power — reasons for the rise of Black Power

Y320: From Colonialism to Independence: The British Empire 1857–1965Unit group 3

Topic overview The governance and administration of the Empire: Empire in 1857 and economic explanations The governance and administration of the Empire: forms of governance and negotiation Opposition to British Rule: Opposition movements, peaceful and violent, reasons for their development Opposition to British Rule: African nationalism, methods and the role of opposition The impact of imperial power on the periphery and Britain: Orientalism and the effects of rule on the colonies The impact of imperial power on the periphery and Britain: jingoism and the impact of Empire on Britain The British Empire and its impact on international relations: European rivalry, isolation and the First World War The British Empire and its impact on international relations: mandates, dominions, world war and decline Depth study: British India: The War of 1857 and its consequences to 1876 — causes, course and consequences of the rebellion Depth study: Palestine 1914–1948 — Status and causes of Zionist-Palestinian problem Depth study: Palestine 1914–1948 — the Mandate in crisis and the British withdrawal Depth study: Nationalism in Kenya 1945–1965 — nationalism, Mau Mau and independence

Y321: The Middle East 1908–2011: Ottomans to Arab SpringUnit group 3

Topic overview The Role of the Great Powers in the Middle East: aims, mandates and the Cold War powers The Role of the Great Powers in the Middle East: Great Power involvement in war, oil wars and strategy Zionism, Israel and the Palestinian issue: Zionism and Israel’s wars to 2008 Zionism, Israel and the Palestinian issue: occupation, the peace process and the Palestinians Statehood and Pan Arabism in the Middle East: Arab nationalism, Nasser and the Turkish republic Statehood and Pan Arabism in the Middle East: monarchies, Baathist regimes and Iran Religion, ethnicity and political minorities: Sunni and Shi'a in the Arab States, Hezbollah and Hamas Religion, ethnicity and political Minorities: Al Qaeda, minorities and the diaspora Depth study: British Policy and the Middle East 1908–1948 — aims before 1914 and the wartime agreements Depth study: British Policy and the Middle East 1908–1948 — policy approaches to the British Mandates Depth study: Arab-Israeli Conflict 1948–1956 — Arab attitudes and the war of 1948–1949 Depth study: Arab-Israeli Conflict 1948–1956 — border conflict, Suez and their consequences Depth study: Nasserism 1952–1970 — Nasser and Pan Arabism Depth study: Nasserism 1952–1970 — Suez Crisis 1956, 1967 War and the death of Pan Arabism

Y305: The Renaissance c.1400–c.1600

The Impact of War: the condottieri and the invasion of 1494

3 things to know
Unit group 3

Overview

Recall questions on the condottieri and reliance on mercenaries, soldier-rulers such as Montefeltro, humanist criticism, Machiavelli’s militia, the French invasion of 1494, its effect on Florence and the damage war did to the Renaissance ideal.

What you need to know

Answer each one before you reveal it.

Your recallNot started

Evaluation

Why did Italian states rely on mercenaries rather than citizen armies?

Key term

Name two condottieri who became rulers and patrons.

Key term

What happened in Italy in 1494?

Questions from this subtopic

Each one with the model answer underneath.

1
Who were the condottieri?
Model answer
They were professional mercenary captains who contracted with Italian states to supply and command troops for a fixed period and fee.
2
Why did Italian states rely on mercenaries rather than citizen armies?
Model answer
The cities were small, commercially minded and reluctant to take their men from profitable trades, they were rich enough to hire professionals, and rulers distrusted arming their own populations.
3
Name two condottieri who became rulers and patrons.
Model answer
Federico da Montefeltro, who became Duke of Urbino, and Francesco Sforza, who seized Milan in 1450.
4
How did Montefeltro embody the ideal of the soldier-scholar?
Model answer
He earned a fortune as a mercenary captain and spent it on the palace at Urbino, one of the finest libraries in Italy and a court of artists and humanists, presenting himself as equally at home in arms and letters.
5
Why did humanists criticise mercenary armies?
Model answer
They argued that men who fought for pay had no loyalty or civic virtue, prolonged wars to keep their employment, avoided decisive battle, and could turn on the states that hired them.
6
What alternative to mercenaries did Machiavelli propose and try to create?
Model answer
He argued that a state must be defended by its own citizens, and in 1506 he organised a Florentine militia recruited from the surrounding countryside.

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